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HAND-BOOK 



OF 



Household Science 



JUNIATA L SHEPPERD, M. A. 

INSTRUCTOR IN COOKERY AND LAUNDERING, 
SCHOOL AND COLLEGE OF AGRICULTURE, 

UNIVERSITY OF MINNESOTA. 



AUTHOR'S EDITION 

PUBLISHED BY THE AUTHOR. 



Printed by Webb Publishing Co. 

st. paul. minn. 

1902 



/ 



the library of 
congress, 

Two Copies Received 

MAY fi 1903 

Copyright Entry 
CLfcSS CC XXo. No. 

copy a 



X^> 






Copyright 1902 

BY 

Juniata L. Shkppkrd. 



PREFACE. 

This text will be found useful in the class room, and 
it will also serve as a manual for the housewife in the 
farm home. It treats of the philosophy of cooking. It 
gives directions for preparing and serving many of the 
substantial, and some embellishing, dishes. It treats of 
the kitchen and dining room, and gives suggestions on 
their furnishing and care. 

In preparing this book, the author has consulted many 
books and magazines devoted to the subject of house- 
hold science. The literature on the subject of foods, 
which is issued by the department at Washington, is reg- 
ularly received, and has been freely consulted in revis- 
ing the notes and lectures used in the school room each 
year. The book is largely a compilation of these lectures 
and notes, supplemented by formulae for the preparation 
and serving of the various dishes. The formulae are 
such as have been found reliable by use in the school 
rooms and culinary departments over which it has been 
the author's privilege to preside. 

The formulae marked "class work" give directions, 
usually, for dishes sufficient for two people, as these 
amounts have been found most practical for the schools 
in which used. The young housewife will find them 
about what she wishes. The teacher who finds a smaller 
amount better, can easily divide the formulae for most 
dishes without changing the proportions of the ingredi- 
ents and thus make small formulae which will be reliable. 

JUNIATA L. SHEPPERD. 
St. Anthony Park, Minn., 
Sept. 20, 1902. 



HOUSEHOLD SCIENCE. 



CHAPTER I. 

FUELS. 

The value of a fuel is estimated by determining the 
amount of moisture, of volatile matter, and of fixed car- 
bon and sulphur it contains. The principal fuels occur 
in the solid, liquid, and gaseous forms. Chief among the 
solid fuels are coal, wood, charcoal, and coke. The distri- 
bution of coal is general over the United States and Eu- 
rope. Although the coal fields of the United States are 
shallow compared with those of Nova Scotia and parts of 
Europe, they are sufficiently extensive to render them the 
richest in the world. 

Varieties of Coal. 

Coals are divided in the first place into hard and soft 
coal. The hard coal is known as "anthracite" or "glance," 
the soft, as "black" or "bituminous," coal. Each of these 
groups may be subdivided into several varieties. 

Graphite may be placed at the base of the series of coal 
formations. This represents coal deprived of all its vola- 
tile matter and a very large portion of the original car- 
bon, but practically none of the original ash. Graphite is 
practically incombustible, and is never used as a fuel, and 
is not listed among coals. 

Anthracite coal comes next in the series as regards, 
hardness and amount of carbon. It contains from three 
to ten per cent, of volatile matter, and sometimes as high, 
as ninety-five per cent, of carbon. This variety of min- 



4 HOUSEHOLD SCIENCE. 

eral coal contains a small amount of hydrogen, and conse- 
quently burns almost without flame. Anthracite coal is a 
clean and convenient fuel for household use. Its avail- 
able heating- power is high. It has great durability in 
combustion, and it is possible to gain practically complete 
combustion by sifting the ashes and reusing the partially 
burned coal. It is a better winter than summer fuel for 
kitchen use, because it is so much more difficult to kindle 
a fire with coal than with wood, and it is easier to have a 
good fire and then extinguish it when using wood. The 
greatest objection to this coal as a household fuel is its 
expense. It makes a hot, steady fire, and is pleasant to 
handle. 

Semi-bituminous coal comes next in the line of hard- 
ness. It contains from ten to eighteen per cent, of gas- 
eous matter. It kindles more readily than anthracite coal, 
has a high heating power, and cakes in the fire. As a 
coal for household purposes, it ranks next to anthracite 
coal. It burns more freely in an open grate than anthra- 
cite coal, but it is less cleanly. 

The bituminous or soft coals are divided into coking, 
furnace, and cannel coals. In bituminous coal, the amount 
of volatile matter varies from eighteen to fifty per cent, 
of the entire mass. 

The coking coals melt and adhere in burning, and when 
the gaseous matter has escaped, a mass of coke remains. 
Most bituminous coals belong to this variety, of which 
the Pittsburg coal may be taken as a type. Bituminous 
coals are extensively employed for the generation of 
steam, and, when coked, for smelting metals. Their tend- 
ency to adhere in masses when burning prevents their 
being used for this in their raw state. This variety of 
coal is a good heat producer, but on account of the large 
amount of volatile matter contained, it produces a great 
quantity of smoke and soot. In some localities it is ex- 
pedient to use it because it is the cheapest fuel. Extreme 



FUELS. 5 

care is necessary, when it is burned in the kitchen range, 
to prevent the light, black, tenacious particles of soot es- 
caping into the room. It is also very unpleasant to han- 
dle. 

Coking coals sometimes contain much sulphur, and 
when so contaminated they are not prized as gas coal, but 
when sufficiently free from this they are much used in 
the production of illuminating gas. The cannel coals ex- 
ceed these in the volume and illuminating power of their 
gas, but the coking coals furnish the most valuable coke. 

The furnace coals are those bituminous coals which do 
not melt or adhere in the fire. 

Cannel coals form a third variety of coals, and differ 
from other bituminous coals in the following particulars : 
They are more homogeneous in texture, contain less 
pitch, and are less brilliant ; they have a low heating pow- 
er, but are esteemed in some localities as a household 
fuel. 

Coke. 

Coke is manufactured from coal, and may be produced 
in two ways : It may be a by-product of the distillation 
of coal for the production of tar, ammonia, etc., or it 
may be obtained by heating the coal in a coke oven with 
an almost entire exclusion of air. It has a dull appear- 
ance, and gives a metallic ring when struck. That 
made in the oven or kiln of brick or stone is the 
best quality of coke, and is used for melting pig 
iron, and for smelting copper and lead. Coke was 
formerly made by a method similar to that used in 
the manufacture of vegetable charcoal. Much of the 
coke found in fuel markets is that produced as a by- 
product in the manufacture of gas. This is not equal to 
the best oven coke, but is a reasonably good heat pro- 
ducer, and is much more cleanly than bituminous coal. 
No special stove or furnace is needed for burning it. It 
burns out grates and fixtures more than other fuels. Coke, 



6 HOUSEHOLD SCIENCE. 

like charcoal, needs to be stored in a dry place, as its 
porous nature causes it to absorb much moisture, and this 
interferes very materially with its value as a fuel. 

Charcoal. 

Charcoal bears the same relation to wood as coke does 
to coal. The manufacture of coke and charcoal are both 
processes of destructive distillation. Usually means are 
employed to save the useful materials which are driven 
off by the heat. 

Charcoal makes an excellent fire for broiling- meats, as 
it, like the coke, burns with a bluish flame, without smoke, 
deposits no soot, and yields an intense heat. Charcoal 
can be very economically used for a broiling fire in the 
range when there is no fire needed for other things. When 
through using the coal, extinguish it with water, and 
when thoroughly dried it will burn equally well. 

Wood. 

Wood is more universally used as a fuel than coal, oil, 
and gas. In many cases it is cheaper than hard coal, 
and cleaner than soft coal. Gas is a pleasant fuel for 
cooking purposes, but is not generally available, and is 
expensive in some localities. Wood, to be most valu- 
able as a fuel, must be dense and dry. Green wood con- 
tains much moisture, and it is not possible to have so hot 
a fire quickly with it. As this is often needed in the 
kitchen, it is better to avoid green wood, because some 
heat must be used up in vaporizing the water in the wood. 
The amount of water varies, but forms from one-fifth 
to one-half the weight of the wood. The essential ele- 
ments of wood are carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen. There 
is mineral matter present, also, as is shown by the ash 
after the wood is burned. 

Wood for fuel purposes may be divided into hard and 
soft woods. The same rule holds good in wood as in 
coal in this respect, — the hard fuel is the best. Hard 



FUELS. 7 

wood, such as oak or hickory, gives a nice bed of glowing 
coals, which continue to yield heat long after the blaze is 
gone. 

When a steady fire is required for baking, a few sticks 
of hard wood of good size will make it possible to control 
the heat during a long period of time. Soft wood burns 
to ashes very quickly, gives a good heat, but needs con- 
stant watching and replenishing. 

In order to have wood serve its purpose best in the 
kitchen range, it must be cut long enough before using 
to give it time to become thoroughly dried out or sea- 
soned. Trees for fuel should not be cut when they are 
what the woodmen call "in sap" ; that is, when they are 
in leaf, or after the buds begin to swell in the spring. 
Such wood is more apt to be infested by insects, and de- 
cay sets in sooner. 

Wood when ready for the stove should be short enough 
to be admitted readily, but not so short as to pack the fire. 
When seasoned and cut, it should be packed in a dry 
place. Moisture from rain dries out more quickly than 
the natural moisture from the tree, but decreases the 
value of the fuel, and annoys the housekeeper as well. 
The wood itself burns better than the bark, and produces 
less ashes. 

In buying wood, avoid that which has many crooked 
or knotty sticks. It will not lie close, and what is gained 
in the resinous knots of the soft wood will hardly com- 
pensate for what is lost in measure. The absence of bark, 
or the shelling off of the bark, is an indication that the 
wood has passed its best stage, and begun to deteriorate 
slightly. Soft wood is better than hard wood for kindling, 
because more easily manipulated, and it also burns more 
readily. 

Peat. 

Peat is of vegetable origin. It is found in marshy 
places, and is always wet, even if not saturated with wa- 



8 HOUSEHOLD SCIENCE. 

ter. The roots and vegetable fibres are in different stages 
of decay, and the bottom layers are black, unctuous, 
and much more dense than the fresher growth. It is 
taken out in blocks, dried, and used for fuel. Air-dried 
peat averages about fifteen per cent, water. Peat makes 
much ash, the amount varying from four or five to 
twenty-five per cent. 

Liquid Fuels. 

The most common liquid fuels are kerosene, gasoline, 



Inner Construction of Range. 

and the two kinds of alcohol, — the ethyl, or common al- 
cohol, and the methyl, or wood alcohol. 

To use kerosene satisfactorily as a summer fuel, two 
things are necessary: The oil must be of good grade, — 
that is, have a high flashing point, — and the stove must 





Diagram of a section of range, showing direction of hot-air currents 
when damper is open, as in No. 1; when closed, as in No. 2. 



10 HOUSEHOLD SCIENCE. 

be kept perfectly clean. The lighter oils mix readily with 
kerosene, and unless it is sufficiently purified to be com- 
paratively free from these inflammable oils, there is dan- 
ger of accidents in its use, just as there is danger in 
using oil of poor quality in a lamp. The flashing point 
is fixed by law, and is usually not lower than 150 , nor 
higher than 200 ° F. With good oil, one can use a 
kerosene stove very comfortably if it is cared for just as is 
a lamp ; otherwise it will smoke and make the user very 
unhappy. 

Gasoline gives less trouble than kerosene, because the 
stove requires much less cleaning; but on account of the 
volatile nature of the gasoline, its use is always attended 
with some danger. 

Both gasoline and kerosene are obtained by a process 
of refining the mineral oils. Most mineral oils are ob- 
tained by boring into the earth, the same as for artesian 
wells. In the process of refining the crude oil, the white, 
solid paraffine wax is obtained, and the semi-solid vase- 
line, as well as many products of a liquid nature, used for 
various purposes. 

The alcohols are about equal in fuel value. They are 
both, when pure, colorless, volatile liquids. They ignite 
by the touch of a flame; give little light, much heat, and 
no smoke. Methyl alcohol gives off a disagreeable odor. 
In using either variety, the bottle should be corked and 
set away before a match is lighted, if one would be sure 
to have no accidents. Much of the ethyl alcohol is ob- 
tained from the distillation of grains. Fermentation is 
the only process of production. Methyl alcohol is ob- 
tained by the process known as the "destructive distilla- 
tion of wood." Much of it is one of the by-products of 
the charcoal kiln. 

TO MAKE AND MANAGE A FIRE. 

Every woman who has anything to do with the cook- 
ing should study the kitchen range until she is familiar 



FUELS. 11 

with every part of it, both inside and out. She must un- 
derstand the use and abuse of every damper, door, and 
slide. 

Every range has a fire box. This may be round or 
elongated ; deep or shallow. When wood is to be used, 
a moderately deep and long fire box is preferable, as it 
will admit longer and larger sticks of wood, thus en- 
abling one to more easily keep a steady fire. The usual 
openings in a fire box are a door and one or more slides. 
The latter admit air containing the oxygen needed by the 
fire. In many ranges there is also an ash damper under 
the fire box, which, if kept open while raking the fire, will 
aid in preventing the ashes entering the room, by creat- 
ing an upward draft. It should not be open at other 
times, because it retards the burning of the fire. There 
is also an oven damper, either back of the oven or over 
it, which, when closed, forces the flames and hot smoke 
to pass around the oven ; then, by means of divisions, as 
shown in the illustration, they are conveyed along the 
bottom of the oven to a pipe at the back part, through 
which they escape into the flue. The oven damper often 
has over it the words, "Out to use the oven," but it does 
not follow that it shall be out only when the oven is to 
be used. When a fresh fire is made, allow the smoke and 
heat to pass up the chimney, but as soon as the fire is 
burning well, adjust this damper so that tne oven will be 
heated. This will keep the oven so that you can heat it 
at any time in a few minutes, and you will have a good 
fire with much less fuel than by allowing a strong draft, 
created by open dampers, to carry the heat up the chim- 
ney. Some ranges have a damper in the pipe, also, which 
can be used when the draft is too strong. 

To Make and Manage a Wood Fire. 

Take off all the stove covers and brush off the dust and 
ashes from the top of the oven into the fire box. Scrape 
the ashes from the fire box into the ash pan, and remove 



12 HOUSEHOLD SCIENCE. 

and empty it. About once a week the ashes should be 
scraped from beneath the oven with a scraper made for 
the purpose. 

When ready to lay the fire, place on the bottom of the 
fire box some shavings, if you have them ; otherwise pre- 
pare some paper by wringing it in the hands, and lay that 
in. On the paper lay a number of fine sticks extending 
the entire length of the grate, and crossing each other 
diagonally, to allow the air to circulate among them, and 
let the ends of the sticks rest on the supports at the ends 
of the fire box, that they may not press the paper or shav- 
ings too much. On these fine sticks place some thicker 
sticks, and criss-cross them as before. Put the covers on, 
and light the fire from below. As soon as the fire has 
burned a few minutes, and sunk a little, put on another 
stick or two, and when it is well started close the drafts 
and the oven damper to hold a steady fire, and replenish 
as often as necessary. 

To Make and Manage a Coal Fire. 

Prepare the range the same as for a wood fire. Put into 
the fire box several pieces of thick kindling wood, laying 
them across the bars of the grate a short distance apart. 
On these place the shavings or paper as before, letting 
them protrude through the bars of the grate, so that they 
can be lighted from below. On these place the small and 
the large sticks, as before, until the fire box is nearly filled, 
then sprinkle on a shovelful of coal, and light. Add a 
little coal, as needed, until a nice bed of red coals is 
formed, then fill the fire box with coal nearly to the top 
of the fire bricks. Under no circumstances fill it fuller 
than this, because there is nothing gained by having the 
top of the range red hot, and it chokes the draft, wastes 
the fuel, and warps the top of the stove. Leave the drafts 
open until the surface of the fire is covered with blue 
flames, then close the drafts to hold a steady fire. Do 
not allow the coal to burn until it is red, as the fire has 



FUELS. 13 

then reached its climax, and will soon begin to die ont 
unless more coal is added ; neither is it wise to allow it to 
burn low. If you wish to keep a brisk fire all day, add a 
sprinkle of coal now and then, as needed, and you will 
not have to wait for a tire to burn. 

When you wish to hold the fire from one meal until 
the next, after the blue name appears, partially remove 
one or more of the covers, and close the drafts. If 
the gas escapes, adjust them so as to prevent this, open- 
ing them a little later, if necessary. When ready to use 
the fire, put on the covers, and open the drafts until it 
again burns brightly. If the fire has rested thus at night, 
get the breakfast and then put on a shovelful of coal and 
let the fire burn until after breakfast; then empty the 
ashes into the sifter, replace the ash pan, open the ash 
damper, and rake the fire until free from ashes. Always 




Double Boiler.— Showing height of water. 

rake it from below, using a long straight poker which 
will pass between the bars of the grate in front, thus lift- 
ing the bed of coals and allowing the ashes to drop 
through into the ash pan. This also brings the clinkers 
up where they can be removed. Close the ash damper, 
sprinkle a little coal over the top, put on the covers, and 
open the oven damper, When this burns, put on coal 
nearly to the top of the fire bricks, and when the blue 
flame appears close the damper. 

References: Johnson's Encyclopedia, p. 356; School Kitch- 
en Text Book— Lincoln— pp. 2 to 10; Elements of Cookery- 
Williams & Fisher— 7-23. 



14 



DINING ROOM 




Plan for Large Farm Kitchen. 
A— China closet between dining room and kitchen. 
B — Closet for kitchen utensils, tinware, etc, 
C— Movable table. 
D — Draining boards. 
E— Sink; if there is water in house. 
F— Range. 



15 



.-.FRONT VIEW.' 



.'.PROFILE.-. 



Q 



B 



Q 







China Closet 



CHAPTER II. 

THE KITCHEN. 

The kitchen should be light and airy. People, like 
plants, need a certain amount of heat and light. 

The kitchen windows should move easily at top and 
bottom. Windows which can be opened easily permit one 
the more readily to clear the room of an undue amount of 
heat or steam. The ceiling should be high, smooth, and 
free as possible from angles. The height will give better 
air, and the smoothness will lessen the amount of collect- 
ing dust and the trouble with house pests. 




Hotel Range. 

It is well to have a ventilator in the roof by means of 
a skylight, when the kitchen is so situated that it can 
be done, as the odors will then escape more readily. 
There should be floor space sufficient for range, sink, cup- 
board, tables, etc., but no more than is necessary ; other- 
wise, much extra walking is required in doing the work. 



THE KITCHEN. 17 

A bare floor of hardwood is best, but it is expensive, 
and any bare floor requires much cleaning, though it is 
certainly more sanitary than one that is covered. Soft 
wood will splinter in time, and tiling is cold and hard on 
the feet, but is easily kept clean, and is very durable. 

If a covering is used, linoleum is better than oilcloth, 
because it is warmer for the feet, and wears well. If there 
is water in the house, so that a sink can be used, have an 
iron or a porcelain one, and a strainer screwed down, to 
prevent clogging the pipe. 

At a convenient place in the kitchen have a closet for 
kitchen tableware and other utensils. There should be 
two drawers for kitchen towels, etc. A small table on 
casters will be found very convenient for use when one 
is baking pies, etc., as it can be readily wheeled from 
pantry to range. It is also desirable to have a table near 
at hand when one is frying doughnuts, poaching eggs, 
or in fact doing any cooking on the top of the range. 
This table should be made of hardwood, that it may be 
easily cleaned, and should be covered with paper while in 
use. 

The range is a very important part of the kitchen fur- 
nishings and it is necessary that it be set in a place where 
the light from at least one window can shine full upon it, 
for there are cloudy days when it is impossible to cook 
successfully unless one can admit much light by adjust- 
ing window shades. 

There are many patterns of stoves and ranges, each 
having its merits and demerits. The portable and set 
ranges will answer for a rough classification. Set ranges 
require less room, but are often necessarily in a dark place 
and can be approached from one side only. They con- 
sume much fuel and heat up slowly. The floor near them 
becomes hot and uncomfortable to the feet. A portable 
range can be placed so as to have better light than a set 
range, in some cases, and as it can be approached from 



18 



HOUSEHOLD SCIENCE. 



more sides, less lifting of heavy vessels is necessary. It 
requires less fuel than a set range, heats up more quickly, 
but gives a smaller amount of hot water, and has some 
other disadvantages. There are a few things that are nee- 




Kitchen Range. 



essary to the successful use of any stove or range : There 
must be a free draught, that the fire may burn readily ; 
there should be several checks and dampers, that the user 



THE KITCHEN. 19 

may be able to control the heat so as to consume no more 
fuel than is necessary, and also be able to direct the hot air 
into such parts of the range as are needed for use at the 
time. When the range is brought into the house, the 
user must at once make herself acquainted with its dif- 
ferent dampers and checks, and study its inner construc- 
tion, that she may know the use of all hot-air and smoke 
flues, and how to manage them. The reasons for this are 
obvious. The air and smoke always carry with them 
soot and ashes, which they deposit on the way to the top 
of the chimney. The soot and ashes must be removed 
frequently, else the range will cease to do good work. 
Water should never be allowed to fall on the range. If 
the range is hot, it is liable to break; if cold, there is dan- 
ger of rust. When it is necessary to leave the kitchen for 
a few minutes, remove the cover from the teakettle to pre- 
vent it boiling over. When anything is spilled on the 
range, wipe it off at once. The top of the range can be 
kept in good condition by washing- with dish water after 
rubbing with a piece of paper. Whether the range shall 
be blacked, each user must decide for herself. Polish 
gives it a more pleasing appearance, but is hard on the 
clothes of the one working about the stove. 

KITCHEN UTENSILS. 

In selecting kitchen utensils, one should exercise great 
care to choose only those which are best adapted to her 
wants, — those which a good housekeeper really needs. 
Closets filled with utensils which are of no great value are 
not an aid to order, neatness, nor expedition in cooking. 

Old iron utensils are superior to new ones, because 
long use has made them very smooth. In buying iron 
utensils, be careful to know that they are of the best qual- 
ity and well finished. Iron utensils of poor quality cause 
much annoyance. Before being used, they should be 
washed and wiped perfectly dry; then the inside should 
be rubbed with some kind of unsalted fat, as lard. Let 



20 



HOUSEHOLD SCIENCE. 



the utensils stand several hours, and then wash again, 
put over the fire where they will heat gradually, wash 
again with soapy water, rinse thoroughly in hot water, 
and wipe perfectly dry. 

Many kitchen utensils can be had in ironware lined 
with porcelain. These have many merits, — they are not 
acted upon by acids, they are thick, and consequently the 
degree of heat required for their contents is easily con- 
trolled, and, if carefully handled, they are durable. If al- 
lowed to become dry, the enamel is liable to crackle and 
subsequently chip off, and they are heavy to handle, but 
are easily cleaned. 




Gasoline Range. 

There are tin vessels with asbestos interlinings. These 
are good for heating milk and all things which require 
care to prevent burning, and which do not act on tin. 

Granite ware is not acted upon by acids, is easily kept 
clean, and is light to handle, but, like porcelain, will chip 



THE KITCHEN. 21 

off if burned or allowed to fall. In buying iron utensils, 
porcelain-lined or granite ware, see that they are smooth 
and free from blemish, as any defect will soon prove the 
ruin of the whole in granite and porcelain-lined vessels, 
and is a constant source of annoyance in iron ones. 

Copper vessels retain heat well, but are expensive and 
difficult to keep in order. They may be kept bright by 
rubbing with a solution of salt and vinegar, and washing 
in soapsuds and wiping dry. They should never be used 
unless perfectly bright, because the food is liable to be 
poisoned by the dark coating. 

Aluminum cooking vessels are light and durable, but 
are very expensive, and, with some kinds of water, tarnish 
readilv and are difficult to clean. 




Strainers, Puree Sieve and Potato Ricer. 

In buying tin vessels, select those which are smooth 
and heavy, and not too brilliant. The retinned is more 
expensive, but usually more satisfactory, as the cheap 
ware has very little durability. The surface of cheap tin 
is easily injured by heat. Tinware is best washed in soap- 



22 



HOUSEHOLD SCIENCE. 



suds, rinsed, and wiped dry. Some object to the use of 
soap in dish washing, fearing that the soap may not be 
clean. It is better to use home-made soap for dish wash- 
ing, and, knowing that it is clean, use it freely. Granite 
ware and porcelain-lined vessels should be washed in 
soapsuds, if greasy, and then rinsed in clear water, if de- 
sired, and wiped dry. A wire dishcloth should be used 
with pots and kettles when necessary. 

A soup digester, while not an absolute necessity, is a 
good thing to have if one can afford it. It must be suf- 
ficiently tight to prevent the steam escaping, else it is no 
better than an ordinary kettle. 




Kitchen Knives, Etc. 

A soapstone griddle is expensive, and some think cakes 
baked on it are less tender than those baked on an iron 
griddle. The soapstone griddle needs no greasing, con- 
sequently there is less smoke from it than from the others 
when cakes are cooking. Of iron griddles there are sev- 
eral kinds. The common cast-iron griddle has very little 
polish, and is inexpensive, but not very satisfactory. 



THE KITCHEN. 23 

There is a thick, heavy griddle having a surface like 
polished steel. This is good, but expensive. There is a 
griddle of iron which is smooth and durable, also inex- 
pensive. This is called "never break" ware. 

If the grease burns on the griddle, scour and rub with 
salt to remove it, then wash clean, and wipe dry. 

Cast-iron roll and gem pans are very heavy, and it 
takes some use to make them smooth. They give a good 
crust to things baked in them, but are inconvenient on 
account of their weight. Russia iron gem pans are light, 




Lemon Squeezers. 

easily cleaned, and bake well, but these are not always 
made so that thin batters will not exude from them. Tin 
pans, especially when new, do not usually give so nice a 
crust as either of the others. When used a while, tin 
bakes better, but it is never quite so satisfactory for this 
purpose as some other materials. Granite ware is good if 
used with care, but does not give a good crust very read- 
ily. 

A common cast-iron spider with a short handle is very 
useful in the kitchen. This should have a close-fitting 



24 HOUSEHOLD SCIENCE. 

cover. It will be found best for sauteing meats, and can 
be set in the oven when necessary. The spider should 
be cared for in the same way as other iron utensils. 

THE PANTRY. 

Adjoining the kitchen there should be a pantry. Ten 
by twelve feet, inside measure, is a good size. The win- 
dow should have a wire screen, so that the room can be 
well aired, and there should be a shade of some kind to 
shut out the sun when necessary. A large, strong table 
containing two drawers should be placed near the win- 
dow. There should be hooks at the end of the table, from 
which to suspend the pastry board, egg beater, etc. The 
board on which cold meats are cut, also that for bread 
and cake, may be hung in some convenient place. In one 
drawer the rolling pin, knives, pastry and cake cutters, 
and a few other utensils may be stored. In the other, 
measuring cups, steel knives, forks, etc., may be kept. 

On one side of the room there should be shelves for 
jars or boxes, in which materials frequently used, such as 
coffee, tea, rice, etc., may be kept. For the daily or week- 
ly supplies in the pantry there is nothing better than glass 
jars. They may be securely closed from insects, prevent 
loss of strength by evaporation, and permit one to see at 
a glance when the stores need replenishing. Some shelves 
should be placed up higher than can be reached from the 
floor, as during the summer these will be found a con- 
venient place for empty fruit jars and such things as are 
not in use at the time. Near the door have a roller for 
the towel, to save steps while working in the pantry. 
Near the window, but not in the sunshine, have the re- 
frigerator, unless there is a cold room near the kitchen in 
which perishable articles of food may be kept. If the 
house has a good cellar, a refrigerator is not a necessity, 
but is convenient, as it saves many steps, and preserves 
foods better than a cellar. 



THE KITCHEN. 25 

THE STOREROOM. 

A storeroom is expected to be a source of comfort, se- 
curity, and economy ; but if it proves to be so, it must be 
properly managed, as well as wisely arranged. This room 
should be kept dry, cool, and dark. Light should be fur- 
nished by a window which can be shaded when neces- 
sary, and opened, when needed, to admit light and air. 
This room should have many shelves, and a step-ladder 
of convenient size for use here. The shelves should be 
made so they can be thoroughly and easily cleaned. Any- 
thing spilled on these shelves should be wiped up at once, 
and the entire room should be cleaned often enough to 
prevent dust accumulating. 

Pantry and storeroom shelves may be covered with oil- 
cloth or paper, which should be renewed often for cleanli- 
ness. Oilcloth is more satisfactory than paper, because a 
soiled place caused by an accident when the covering is 
clean can be cleaned without removing everything from 
the shelf. Paper has the merit of cheapness. In this 
room should be kept all provisions bought in quantities, 
except those having a strong odor, as codfish, bacon, etc. 
These should be kept alone in an airy place. 

The room where milk and butter are kept must be dry, 
well-ventilated, and light. Usually the cellar will be 
found most desirable for this purpose, because there the 
temperature is more even than in a place above ground. 
Perfect cleanliness and frequent airing are indispensable 
in this place. If vegetables and milk are both kept in the 
same cellar, they should be put into separate rooms which 
do not communicate with each other, for milk and butter 
will readily absorb any odor which is in the air about them. 

The cellar should be ventilated when the outside air is 
cool, for warm air which is admitted is liable to contain 
moisture, which, on meeting the cool air of the cellar, 
will be condensed, and render the cellar damp, as well as 



26 HOUSEHOLD SCIENCE. 

warm. In order to avoid this, the windows should he 
opened late at night, and closed before sunrise, when the 
air is the coolest one can obtain. 

References: Parloa's Kitchen Companion, pp. 9-17, 31-42, 
56-62; Elements of Cooking — Williams & Fisher — pp. 31-33, 
39-49. 

MEASURING. 

Believing that most housekeepers prefer measuring to 
weighing, the recipes in this book are given almost wholly 
by measure. The measures are almost invariably even; 
for example, one cup means one level cup ; one teaspoon- 
ful means one level teaspoonful ; one scant cup means one 
tablespoonful less than a cup; one generous cup means 
one tablespoonful more than a cup. Eggs vary so much 
in size that it is practically impossible to be exact in a 
recipe which calls for a certain number of eggs, conse- 
quently the following recipes generally give eggs by meas- 
ure, instead of by number. 

In order to eliminate luck from cookery, the worker 
must be exact in her measurements, as well as careful in 
the preparation and baking of any dish. Materials differ 
in strength and quality, and for this reason a little judg- 
ment is needed in making any dish ; but the fact that these 
formulae have all been thoroughly tested, and many of 
them have been used by large classes in the schoolroom, 
leads to the belief that even the amateur will find them 
reliable. One cup, as used in the formulae, means one- 
half pint ; but it does not follow that, in order to be ex- 
act in her measurements, each woman must possess a 
graduated measuring cup. It is easier to use, and costs 
little ; but knowing that, in these recipes, sixteen table- 
spoonfuls equal one cup, it is an easy matter to put six- 
teen tablespoon fuls of water into a glass (be sure that 
the spoons are just full, — neither under full nor running 
over), and hunt among your dishes until you find a glass 



THE KITCHEN. 



27 



or cup which will be just filled level full by this process. 
Then keep that one always for measuring purposes. Re- 
member that success depends upon accuracy of measure- 
ment. At home, the one cup, with a teaspoon and table- 
spoon, is all that is necessary; but in school work, by 
some methods of teaching, one needs to divide a recipe 
into tablespoonfuls. The following table is given to aid 
in this work : 








Measuring Dry Materials. 



MEASURES. 



Four teaspoonfuls equal one tablespoonful. 

Sixteen tablespoonfuls of liquid equal one cup. 

Twelve tablespoonfuls of dry material equal one cup. 

Four cups equal one quart. 

The juice of one lemon means one-fourth of a cup. 

MEASURES AND WEIGHTS. 

One pint of butter (packed) equals one pound. 

One quart of flour (packed) equals one pound. 

One pint of granulated sugar equals one pound. 

One pint of chopped meat (packed) equals one pound. 

One pint and two-thirds of a cup of powdered sugar equals one 

pound. 
One pint and two-thirds of a cup of brown sugar equals one 
pound. 



28 HOUSEHOLD SCIENCE. 

One pint and two-thirds of a cup of oatmeal equals one pound. 
One quart and three-fourths of a cup of rolled oats equals one 
pound. 

For school work, it is absolutely necessary to have the 
graduated cups. It is wise, also, to have a number of 
timbale molds, which can be had for a little ; and as they 
can be gotten in a size that holds just one-fourth of a 
cup, they aid much in securing accurate measurement by 
those in class who cannot measure by the eye, for anyone 
can smooth a substance off with a knife, and have it al- 
ways measure the same. 

In class work, it is well (for beginners) to use the 
small-sized timbale molds. Make your recipes so that 
even measures can be used ; then for one-fourth of a cup 
the students can smooth the material in the little cups off 
even with the top of the measure by using a kitchen 
knife ; for half a cup they can take two of the measures ; 
for three-fourths, three, etc. Have them empty the con- 
tents each time into their half-pint measure. After three 
months' work (twenty-four lessons), take the small cups 
away, and let those who succeed with the half-pint cup 
continue using it ; let the others go back to the use of 
small cups again, and they will be somewhat chagrined, 
and use their powers of observation to such purpose that 
they will soon succeed in developing some judgment in the 
matter of measuring. 

PICKING UP AND WASHING DISHES. 

( i ) Put away food. 

(2) Gather teaspoons and put in a small pitcher. 

(3) Gather up glasses. 

(4) Gather up cups. 

(5) Gather up saucers. 

(6) Gather up pitchers. 

(7) Gather up knives, forks, and tablespoons, and put 
in a pitcher of water. 

(8) Gather the cleanest plates, or the sauce plates. 



THE KITCHEN. 



29 



(9) Gather the dinner plates. 

(10) Gather the butter plates. 

Scrape all the fragments into a refuse pail as the dishes 
are picked up. Arrange dishes conveniently on the table 
where they are to be washed. When washing glassware 
of any kind, dip in such a way that water will enter inside 
and outside at same time, and it will be less liable to 
break them. 

Have a dishpan with plenty of clean, hot, soapy water. 
Wash first the glasses, drain, and wipe on a clean, dry 
cloth, as they have thus a better polish. Cut glass should 
be cleaned with sawdust and a clean brush before wash- 
ing. Next wash the silver, then the tinware, drying each 




Household Scales. 



immediately while still hot. Throw that water out, if 
dirty, and with clean, hot soapsuds wash first the cups, 
drain, scald, and wipe, or drain, if you have room to stand 
them up where the air can pass about them, and put 
away unwiped. Treat all other china in the same way, 
washing the cleanest first. If the washing water is not 
hot, the change of temperature may cause the china to 
crackle. Avoid putting the handles of steel knives, or the 
tops of egg beaters, in the water, as the handles mav come 



30 HOUSEHOLD SCIENCE. 

off from the knives, and the egg beaters may refuse to 
turn, or may scatter oil when used. 

CLEANING SILVER, GLASS, ETC. 

When the water bottle or glass pitcher becomes dis- 
colored, soak in ammonia water, or in water with a little 
baking soda, and rub the spots with baking soda. Alco- 
hol is better than ammonia to moisten the whiting for 
cleaning silver, because the ammonia is apt to dissolve off 
a portion of the silver. Better use whiting or powdered 
chalk than many of the silver polishes, as the silver is 
injured less. To remove egg stains from silver, rub with 
salt on a moist cloth. Whiting, or very fine sand, with a 
neutral soap, is good for cleaning tinware. To prevent 
iron utensils rusting while not in use, coat with kerosene 
and lamp-black. 

The cloth that the dishes are washed with should never 
be left wet or hung under the sink, but should be rinsed 
out and dried at once, — in the sunshine, if possible. Once 
a week it should be boiled in soapsuds after washing well, 
and then dried. 

For tea towels, linen crash is probably the best, be- 
cause it absorbs water well, and is easily laundered. But 
muslin flour sacks, hemmed, will serve the purpose very 
well if laundered each week before too much soiled. The 
cloths for wiping ironware, such as kettles, bread pans, 
etc., should be made of crash, because it is so difficult to 
wash the stains from them. The iron must be wiped, be- 
cause, if left to dry on the range, it may become rough. 
There should be cloths of some soft material for lifting 
things about the range. When an iron or granite ware 
kettle has had something burned in it, it should have 
some water and a little washing soda or concentrated lye 
put into it, and be allowed to stand where it will keep 
warm for a while, then the water should be poured off, 
and the burned portion of the kettle scraped with an oys- 



THE KITCHEN. 31 

ter shell, a wire dish washer, or something of the kind. 
It should then be rinsed with elear water, washed and 
rubbed with a cloth on which a little sapolio- has been 
placed by rubbing- the cloth over the cake. 

To prevent omelet pans sticking, rub with salt. When 
onions or cabbage have been cooked in a kettle, it should 
be filled with water after washing, and a little washing 
soda or lye added and allowed to boil, and afterwards 
washed well and wiped. This will remove odor. 

Wooden articles should be soaked with water as little 
as possible in washing, and dried in a gentle heat. If 
placed near the fire they are very apt to crack. 

Steel knives and forks should be cleaned with brick 
dust after each meal. The cut surface of a raw potato is 
a good thing to rub them with, as it keeps constantly 
moist. A piece of cork is also good. After scouring, 
wash in soapsuds and wipe dry. 

The garbage pail should be washed after each meal, and 
scrubbed each laundry day. 

TO CLEAN THE SINK. 

Wash with hot water in a dishpan and a brush, being 
certain that every groove is reached. Pour the water 
from the dishpan into the sink, and let it drain out. Fill 
the pan again with hot water, and again wash the sink, 
and wipe dry, if it is not to be used again soon. The 
sink should be flushed three times a week with boiling 
salsoda water, made in the proportion of one pint of sal- 
soda to three gallons of water. Use at least two quarts 
of the hot salsoda water each time, allowing it to run 
boiling hot down the pipe, and pour clear boiling water 
in at once when the other disappears. If the sink be- 
comes rusty, rub well with un salted fat on the bottom and 
sides, and allow it to stay on over night, or several hours : 
then wash it off with hot soapsuds, and wipe the sink dry. 



32 HOUSEHOLD SCIENCE. 

TO CLEAN THE REFRIGERATOR. 

Wash shelves and bottom of refrigerator once a week 
with clear warm water, and wipe dry, if shelves are not 
movable. If shelves can be moved, take them out, and 
wash with soapsuds, and scald, and wipe dry. When 
cool, return to their places. In every case see that crevices 
are thoroughly cleaned. Once in two weeks take ice all 
out, and wash ice chest well ; also clean waste pipe by 
probing with a white cloth tied onto the end of a stick 
that is certain not to break, — a piece of an old whip stock 
is sfood. 



CHAPTER III 



METHODS OF COOKING, 



Methods of cooking may be divided into four general 
classes, — broiling, boiling, baking, and frying. 

( Broiling- over coals. I Boiling- proper. 

Broiling] Pan broiling. Boiling -J Steaming. 

( Oven broiling. ( Stewing. 

Bak-g j gSX F ry i„ g | JESS d " P tat ' 

In broiling, an article of food is subjected to radiant 
heat, which usually reaches the article being cooked, from 
one side only. In broiling proper, this heat comes from a 
bed of glowing, smokeless coals, and the article to be 
cooked is supported by a few wires. In pan broiling, the 
heat is conducted by a hot metal surface, as a hot griddle, 
and the article to be cooked lies on the radiating surface. 
In oven broiling, the medium is hot air, and the process 
differs from baking only in having much more intense 
heat, as the article to be cooked is thin, and requires an 
intense heat, because it must be cooked quickly, and be 
served while still juicy and hot. 

When food is boiled, it is enveloped in hot water. In 
some cases, the water should boil rapidly all the time, 
as in cooking potatoes, carrots, etc. In other cases, it 
should not bubble at all, but be kept near the boiling 
point. The reason for this is found in the articles on 
cooking vegetables and meats. 

Stewing is a combination of two methods, — boiling 
and steaming,- — only a little water being used, and the 
article to be cooked placed in a closed vessel with tight- 
fitting cover, so that the confined steam aids the small 
amount of hot water in making the food tender. 

2 



34 HOUSEHOLD SCIENCE. 

In steaming, the food is placed above hot water, and 
the vessel is covered so closely that the steam surrounds 
the food and cooks it. This is an excellent method of 
cooking such vegetables as potatoes, parsnips, etc. When 
foods such as cereals, steamed bread, etc., are cooked in 
a vessel surrounded by hot water, we call the process 
steaming, though the steam does not touch the food, but 
the heat is conducted to it by means of the metal or 
porcelain vessel containing the article to be cooked. 

In baking, the article to be cooked is surrounded by 
hot air. In roasting, the heating medium is the same. 

In frying, the food is surrounded by hot fat. In sau- 
teing, a small quantity of fat is used, and articles which 
would be tough when fried or broiled are made tender 
by first browning in the fat, and then subjecting to a 
long, slow cooking, the spider being closely covered all 
the time. 

Braising might be termed "oven stewing," as a small 
amount of water is used, and the closely-covered vessel 
containing the food is kept in the oven while the article 
cooks. 

OBJECT OF COOKING. 

The value of food for nutriment depends not only 
on the amount of nutrients it contains, but also on the 
amount of these the body can digest and use for its sup- 
port. 

Cooking changes the texture of food, making it in 
some cases more, and in others less, digestible; hence 
we should first ascertain whether cooking will improve 
the flavor and digestibility of the article of food. In 
general, the digestibility of animal foods is diminished 
by cooking, and that of vegetables increased, though 
there are exceptions. Vegetable foods are more difficult 
of digestion than animal foods, and their preparation is 
more complicated and thorough. The nutritive substances 
are inclosed in cells often with thick walls, and hence are 



METHODS OF COOKING. 35 

not readily acted upon by the digestive fluids. When 
vegetables are boiled in water, the contents of the cells 
expand and burst through these walls. The fragrant and 
savory substances are set free with the other substances 
which were imprisoned in the cells, and their astringency 
and bitterness are tempered. Some of the constituents 
are dissolved by water, or suffer other changes. Starch, 
an important ingredient in many vegetable foods,, such 
as potato, wheat, rice, etc., takes up water and assumes 
the soft pasty condition which is necessary for its trans- 
formation into soluble dextrine and sugar, which shows 
that the cooking of starchy foods is necessary. 

The boiling of vegetables may, indeed, be termed a 
preparatory digestive process. Cells of other plants be- 
have like the starch-bearing potato. The seeds of le- 
gumes, such as beans, peas, and lentils, are, in their nat- 
ural state, difficult of digestion, because their starch gran- 
ules lie closely packed within the indigestible cell walls. 
On boiling, the starch swells, the cells burst, and their 
contents are changed into a pulpy mass, — a very nutri- 
tious and digestible dish. 

References: Art of Cookery — Ewing — p. 33; Elements of 
Cookery — Williams & Fisher— pp. 52, 53; The Chemistry of 
Cookery — Mattieu Williams- — pp. 8-12. 



CHAPTER IV. 

WATER. 

Sources of Water. 

Water plays a very important part in this world of 
ours. It is encountered in minerals as a chemical con- 
stituent. It enters very largely into the composition of 
ail things of vegetable growth, from the blade of grass 
to the sturdy oak. Many vegetables, as cabbage, pota- 
toes, celery, lettuce, etc., are composed largely of water. 
Fruit also contains a large amount of water. The bodies 
of all animals contain much water. If the water could 
all be removed from a human body, a very small weight 
would balance what is left. Since fruits and vege- 
tables, as well as animal foods, are composed so 
largely of water, a human being takes much water in 
his food, and this is the same as other water, so far as 
its work in the body is concerned. Water is taken in 
also with the air which is breathed. A body composed 
so largely' of water as is that of the human being needs 
much more water than the food and air supply. Much is 
needed to enable the body to perform its necessary func- 
tions, and the skin must be kept clean to aid the internal 
organs in their ceaseless and worthy efforts to excrete 
watery solutions and keep the person in good health. 

Nature has supplied this universal solvent very plenti- 
fully, and distributed it over much of the earth's sur- 
face, and under some portions of it. Water for the 
nourishment of men and animals is derived largely 
from rain water stored in cisterns, etc., and from springs, 
lakes, rivers, and wells. The term "rain water" is ap- 
plied to the water which reaches us from the clouds, di- 
rect, whether in the form of rain, hail, or snow. Rain 



WATER. 37 

water should be allowed to fall a sufficient length of time 
to wash the dust particles and other impurities from the 
air, and the smoke and dust from the roof, before it is 
allowed to enter the cistern. A cistern should be walled 
with material practically insoluble in water, and well ce- 
mented. It should be kept well covered, to prevent the 
entrance of all impurities. 

Rain or melting snow is the usual source of spring 
water. The water sinks into the earth, and percolates 
through layer after layer, until it reaches an impervious 
stratum of rock or clay. There it rests until the ac- 
cumulation is so great that it must have more room. It 
then breaks through the soil at some lower level in the 
form of a spring. Rivers usually have their source in 
a lake situated among the mountains, or on other high 
land. These lakes receive the water from the melting 
snows on the surrounding heights, and from the rain- 
fall, as well as that which seeps through the rocks. 
When the lake basin can hold no more water, a tiny 
stream flows out over the lower land, and receives 
similar streams and large rivers until, when it reaches 
the sea, there is a large amount of water. Lakes are 
formed by melting snow and rain, which flow in small 
streams into a basin having a bottom impervious to wa- 
ter. Wells are artificial openings into underground water, 
and are of three kinds. Shallow wells from fifteen to 
fifty feet are dug, and walled with brick or stone. These 
are fed by surface water, and are often visibily affected 
by copious rainfall or protracted drouth. Driven wells 
are deeper, and often pass through a layer of some ma- 
terial which is impervious to water. Artesian wells are 
sometimes of very great depth, ranging from some hun- 
dreds to a few thousand feet deep. 

Composition of Water. 

Pure water is made up of two gases, — hydrogen and 



38 HOUSEHOLD SCIENCE. 

oxygen, — in the proportion of one part oxygen to two 
parts hydrogen by volume. It is represented by the sym- 
bol "H2O." Pure water is colorless, tasteless, and odor- 
less. Pure water is never found in nature. Put a clean 
glass where the rain can fall unobstructed through the air 
into it during the latter part of a shower, and you will have 
water as nearly pure as it occurs in nature. Rain water 
absorbs gases of which the atmosphere is composed, — 
nitrogen and oxygen and carbon dioxide and a small 
amount of ammonia. It usually contains dust taken from 
the air, and may contain small amounts of soluble sub- 
stances, particles of which were floating in the air. That 
which flows over the roofs of buildings is likely to con- 
tain smoke, in addition to the other impurities. Rain 
water which flows over or through portions of the earth, 
as in the formation of rivers, lakes, and springs, takes up 
something in the form of soluble portions of soils, rocks, 
and decaying animal and vegetable matter found in its 
course. Many substances are soluble in water, and food 
nutrients needed by some plants are found in water, so 
that water which falls on a mountainous region has a 
very different composition when it reaches the sea, or 
an underground river or lake, from what it had when it 
first reached the earth. Rain water which falls in the 
latter part of a shower is purer than that which falls 
in the first part, and the water which falls in winter is 
purer than that which falls in summer. 

Food Value of Water. 

Water is not a "nutrient," in the sense in which the 
word is generally used, but it is indispensable for nour- 
ishment, for it is a universal solvent, and a very conven- 
ient means of carrying the nutrients to the places where 
they are needed. It also carries waste products to places 
of exit, and conveys the surplus heat from the places 
where it is manufactured to the outside of the body, so that 
the temperature may be equalized, the blood purified, and 



WATER. 39 

the tissues built up or repaired. The frequent application 
of water to the outside of the body aids in the work of 
purification of the body by keeping the pores of the skin 
open, so that some of the waste products may be freely 
eliminated. 

Perfect purity is not necessary in drinking water, but 
it should be free from visible particles, and should have 
no disagreeable taste or smell, either when fresh, or after 
it has stood for a time in a clean closed vessel. It should 
contain enough of the gases of the air to prevent its tast- 
ing Mat, like distilled or long-boiled water. It should 
contain only a small amount of dissolved mineral mat- 
ter, and this should not be of a poisonous nature, — as lead 
from pipes, etc. Water should be free from decaying 
animal or vegetable matter. Impurities of animal matter 
or the excreta of animals are usually more dangerous than 
those of vegetable origin. Water which has more than a 
trace of such matter is not safe. The purity of water 
cannot always be judged by its appearance, odor, or 
taste. Water which is clear and sparkling and tastes 
well may contain the germs of some dread disease; and 
water may contain the dead bodies of harmless confervae 
and Crustacea, minute sponges,, etc., to such a degree as 
to cause it to smell bad for a time, without perceptibly 
injuring the one who drinks of it. If there is any ques- 
tion about the wholesomeness of water, boil it, and let 
it cool before using. So far as lies in your power, keep 
the surroundings clean. Pure water is "clean" in every 
sense of the word. Water in which sodium and magne- 
sium salts are present in such small quantities as not to 
render it hard is desirable. When the conditions are such 
that the calcium or magnesium carbonate can be precipi- 
tated by continued boiling the water is called "temporary 
hard" water, because the hardness can be removed by 
boiling. The carbonate is not readily soluble in pure 
water, but is soluble in water containing carbon dioxide 



40 HOUSEHOLD SCIENCE. 

gas. Boiling drives the carbon dioxide gas off, and the 
calcium or magnesium carbonate is precipitated. The in- 
crustation thus formed on the inside of the tea kettle can 
be removed by setting it out to freeze. When the calcium 
and magnesium occur as sulphates, they cannot be precipi- 
tated by boiling, and the water is known as "permanent 
hard" water. 

A comparatively soft water is considered best for cook- 
ing some vegetables, as beans, peas, etc., as the hard wa- 
ter seems to have a less softening effect on them. In 
cooking some other vegetables, the kind of water used 
seems to make little difference. Moderately hard water 
is considered better than very soft water for making tea 
and coffee, because it dissolves less tannin, and the bev- 
erage is thus more wholesome. Soft water is far pref- 
erable for cleaning and for all laundry work, as it re- 
quires less soap and labor, and gives better results. 

Sources of Impurities in Water. 

Harmful impurities in rain water may be avoided by 
preventing the water entering the cistern before the air 
and the roofs of buildings have been thoroughly washed, 
and then keeping the cistern covered, to prevent the en- 
trance of leaves, insects, etc. 

Spring water necessarily contains some mineral matter 
— more in calcareous than in silicious regions — which it 
dissolved as it passed through the soil, and it may have 
dissolved some animal matter, if any dead carcass or ani- 
mal excreta lay on the soil over which it passed. It usual- 
ly contains some vegetable matter, obtained from dead 
leaves, though organic matter is usually found in small 
amount in spring water. Lakes which lie high up 
among the mountains are usually replenished by water 
which flows over uncultivated lands. Such lakes fre- 
quently have rocky bottoms, and are consequently quite 
free from contamination if they are remote from human 
habitations, and have an outlet, that they may be purified 



WATER. 41 

by subsidence, and kept fresh by constant change. Lakes 
which have no outlet contain much mineral matter on 
account of constant evaporation. Lakes in thickly-settled 
regions receive much mineral matter and other impuri- 
ties brought by the streams which flow over cultivated 
regions. They may also receive garbage, sewage, etc., 
from cities and towns on their shores. 

River water always contains mineral matter, the amount 
varying under different conditions. A river which has 
its source on high, uncultivated ground usually has purer 
water near its source than farther down. Much depends, 
also, on the formation of the soil through which it flows. 
It is also different when swollen by heavy and frequent 
rains than after protracted dryness. River water is very 
apt to be polluted by decaying animal and vegetable mat- 
ters, as vegetation on its shores, the bodies of dead ani- 
mals, as fish, etc. The refuse from factories and the sew- 
age from cities frequently find their way into the near-by 
river. It sometimes becomes necessary to supply cities 
with water from a river or lake. In this case, some 
means of purifying is resorted to, as filtering through 
beds of sand, etc. Household filters can be had, but un- 
less they are kept scrupulously clean, the water is worse 
with than without filtering. 

The water of wells contains mineral matter dissolved 
from the soil and rocks through which it passed. Some 
well waters have much more mineral matter than others ; 
this depends largely on whether the well is situated in a 
silicious or a calcareous region. Well water is not free 
from organic impurities, as water carries them long dis- 
tances through porous soil. Of the three mentioned, arte- 
sian wells are least apt to be so contaminated. Shal- 
low wells are the most commonly so polluted. There 
is more danger from such wells in the village than 
in the country, for, however cleanly a person may be, he 
has several neighbors near enough so that a little careless- 
ness on their part may in a few days cause disease germs 



42 HOUSEHOLD SCIENCE. 

to enter the water of a well that has been used for years, 
and never found unwholesome. 

Though there is less danger of pollution in the well 
water at the farm house, it is far from being free from 
danger. As the well is merely an opening into this un- 
derground lake or river, it will be as surely polluted by 
solid garbage thrown on the ground to be washed by 
the rains, and carried through the earth into it, as though 
it were thrown on its visible surface. The piggery, the 
barn, the henhouse, etc., are fruitful sources of contami- 
nation unless they be well removed and on lower ground. 
No one would think of throwing the kitchen slops into 
the well, but they sometimes find their way into it when 
thrown on the surface of the ground. 

References: Johnson's Encyclopedia; Drinking Water and 
Ice Supplies — Prudden. 



CHAPTER V. 



VEGETABLES. 



What Place Should Vegetables Have in the Diet? 

The cereal products and potatoes make up the bulk 
of the vegetable substance of our diet. There are, how- 
ever, other vegetables which should be daily used. Some 
of these cannot be said to have a large amount of nutri- 
ment, yet there is something in their cool and crisp 
natures, their vegetable acids and other constituents, 
which exert a beneficial effect upon the system. It is 
said that the early Romans so fully appreciated the use 
of vegetable foods that they enacted laws compelling 
their people to combine them freely with meats in their 
dietaries. If the American people would use vegetables 
freely with their diet of bread, meat, and potatoes, they 
would have much more reason to hope for happy and 
healthv old as:e. 




Lettuce is chief among the salad plants. It has many 
virtues. It is dainty and delicate ; wholesome at any 
meal, but generally used at dinner. It combines har- 
moniously with almost any kind of meat. It admits of 
a number of different dressings, but is almost univer- 
sally relished, even when dressed in the simplest man- 



44 HOUSEHOLD SCIENCE. 

ner. The leaves of lettuce should never be bruised. 
The tender leaves brought fresh from the garden should 
be washed in clean, cold water, and relieved from moist- 
ure by tumbling about in a white cloth. It may be 
served just as it is, allowing each guest to dress it sim- 
ply with vinegar and salt, or more elaborately, as is pre- 
ferred. 

Endive or winter lettuce is also valuable, because, 
being more hardy than lettuce proper, it can be had in 
early spring, when green vegetables are scarce. When 
exposed to the air, the leaves are more acrid and tough 
than those of lettuce. It can be bleached so that it is 
crisp, tender and appetizing. It is dressed and used in 
the same way as lettuce. 

Watercress, that aromatic and pungent herb which 
grows wild in some localities along the edges of ponds 
of fresh water, near springs, and upon the banks of small 
streams, — always where there is plenty of water, — has 
a very pleasant flavor, and is relished by many. The 
cultivated varieties are more tender than the wild ones. 

Rhubarb, on account of its pleasant flavor and early 
appearance in the spring, is a welcome visitor. It is 
ready for use long before any fruit, or even the prin- 
cipal salad plants. It can be used in a variety of ways, 
so that one does not readily tire of it. When stewed 
in a very little water and sweetened, it makes a good 
substitute for fruit sauce. It is very acceptable in pie, 
and those who have tried it in a shortcake served with 
whipped cream can give evidence of its merits in this 
capacity. 

There are many plants belonging to the cabbage fam- 
ily, — different kinds of kale, Brussells sprouts, broccoli, 
cauliflower, etc. A dish of sauerkraut makes a pleasant 
variety during the long winter months, when vegetables 
are scarce. This German dish is said to prevent scurvy 
quite as efficiently as lemon juice or green vegetables. 



VEGETABLES. 45 

Crisp, tender cabbage, when finely shredded and 
dressed for the table raw, is, for many, more wholesome 
and digestible than cooked cabbage. Young onions are 
to most people very agreeable and digestible. Celery 
has a tenderness and delicacy of flavor which, added to 
the benefit which the system derives from its use, should 
gain for it a place in every farmer's garden. 

There are other vegetables used as salads, but these 
which are mentioned are all common, and with such a 
variety there need never be a time during the summer 
season when one feels the need of anything further in 
the line of food materials. 

Spinach is an early spring vegetable, and makes a fine 
dish of greens. 

All vegetables lose something either in flavor or constit- 
uents, or both, by cooking. White beans are easily had 
for winter use, and are a food rich in the flesh forming ele- 
ments. Dry beans, like cereals, seem to benefit the person 
eating them very little unless thoroughly cooked. Twelve 
to twenty hours' cooking is necessary to render them the 
most palatable and digestible ; but as the fire seldom goes 
out in the kitchen range during winter, their preparation 
requires little extra time or attention. The small white kid- 
ney bean is best, on account of its thin skin and fine flavor. 
There are several reasons for the long, slow cooking nec- 
essary in dry beans, peas, and lentils. One is to soften 
the paper-like membrane in which each nutritive particle 
is bound up. Another is to so soften and change the 
proteid matter as to render it more palatable and more 
easily acted on by the digestive fluids. Another reason 
for long cooking is that the legume softens and is pene- 
trated by the seasonings used, which renders it more 
palatable. Split peas have the outside skin removed and 
are for this reason easier made use of by those who 
are disturbed by the skins of legumes. All legumes may be 
passed through a sieve to free from skins, as in making 



46 HOUSEHOLD SCIENCE. 

purees. Some beans may be soaked until the skins can be 
rubbed on between the hands. 

In seasoning cooked vegetables, our object is to em- 
phasize and bring out delicate flavors, and tone down 
such flavors as are too prominent. A little cream adds 
much to the flavor of some vegetables. 

Green corn is a universal favorite, and is very gener- 
ally used in its season. It has no further need of season- 
ing than to bring out the delicious flavor, and this can be 
best done by steaming. 

Some green vegetables can be dried for winter use 
and be as palatable as when canned. The process of 
drying requires little, if any, more time or labor than 
does canning. 

To Dry Corn. 

Pick it when just in prime condition for roasting ears, 
husk, silk, and remove from the cob the same as for cook- 
ing. Dry in a current of air as quickly as possible, tie up 
in a bag and keep in a dry place. 

To Dry String Beans. 

Gather them when just right for present use. string, 
and prepare as for cooking. Spread in a shady place 
where the air circultes freely, and, when dry, treat in the 
same manner as corn. 

REMARKS. 

Use each vegetable very often while it is in season. 
Asparagus seldom lasts long enough for the familv to 
tire of it. Peas are always welcome, especially if cream 
is used in dressing them. Peas are sweeter when the 
pods are washed and boiled until soft, then skimmed out, 
and the peas cooked in the water. Most people will wel- 
come tomatoes in some form once a day during the 
entire summer. 

For cooking some vegetables, use a kettle having a 



VEGETABLES. 47 

tight-fitting cover. Food will cook in a less amount of 
water when the steam is confined within the vessel than 
when the medium for cooking must he hot water en- 
tirely. 

Most vegetables may be steamed instead of boiled if 
one has utensils for so cooking. 

The kettle in which potatoes are cooked should be 
used for nothing else, if one wishes potatoes to be as 
white as possible. 

In all vegetables, aim to have the water mostly cooked 
out, unless the flavor is too great, and you parboil the 
vegetable. 

In cooking some vegetables, such as carrots, cabbage, 
and parsnips, the water in which they are cooked need 
not be thrown away. 




While stewing is usually done in a small quantity of 
water, there are exceptions to this rule, as carrots, beans, 
onions, turnips, and some other highly-flavored vege- 
tables are improved in flavor by parboiling and draining. 
Much of the nutritive part of the vegetable is sacrificed 
in thus obtaining the best flavor. It is undoubtedly better 
to use little water in the cooking, and tone the flavor 
by using an appropriate dressing. 



48 HOUSEHOLD SCIENCE. 

Frozen Vegetables. 

Are, at best, inferior, but when it is necessary to use 
such, soak them in cold water until thawed before pre- 
paring for use. Then put to cook in boiling water, and 
cook rapidly until done. 

References: U. S. Dept. Agr., Office Exp. Stations, Bulletin 
No. 43, pp. 7-8, 13; Food Products of the World — Green — pp. 
158-161, 196-199; Farmers' Bulletin No. 121; Minnesota Bulle- 
tin No. 54, pp. 58-61 ;Parloa's Kitchen Companion, pp. 490-492. 

STEAMING, BAKING AND BOILING VEGETABLES. 

Effect of Cooking on Food Value of Potatoes. 

The following conclusions are taken from Minnesota 
Experiment Station Bulletin No. 43 : 

"(1) In order to obtain the highest food value, pota- 
toes should not be peeled before cooking. 

"(2) When potatoes are pared before cooking, the 
least loss is sustained by putting them directly into hot 
water, and boiling as rapidly as possible. Even then the 
loss is very considerable. 

"(3) If potatoes are pared and soaked in cold water 
before boiling, the loss of nutrients is very great, being 
one-fourth of all the albuminoid matter. In a bushel of 
potatoes, the loss would be equivalent to a pound of 
sirloin steak." 

Plain Boiled Potatoes. 

Select potatoes of uniform size. Wash clean in cold 
water, using a vegetable brush. Rinse and pare, remov- 
ing a thin paring, and taking out the eyes, if necessary. 
As soon as pared, rinse in clear water, and put to cook 
in such a quantity of boiling salted water that it will be 
nearly boiled away when the potatoes are soft. Drain 
off the water which remains, remove to the back of range, 
throw a white cloth over the potatoes to absorb the moist- 
ure, and they are ready to serve. A medium-sized po- 
tato will cook in about twenty-five minutes. To cook 



VEGETABLES. 49 

potatoes in their skins, follow the same method. Potatoes 
which are pared before cooking will give the whitest and 
nicest-looking mashed potatoes, but they have less food 
value than those pared after cooking. Potatoes are as 
nice steamed as boiled and probably have greater food 
value. 

Emergency Potatoes. 

Select potatoes with a smooth skin and of medium 
size, scrub them, cover with boiling water, and let boil 
about ten minutes, drain off the water and put potatoes to 
bake. They will then bake quicker, and be almost as 
good, as when wholly cooked in the oven. 

Baked Potatoes. 

Select and wash as above. Put to bake on the bottom 
of a clean, moderately hot oven., When done, take each 
potato in a cloth, and squeeze until it breaks a little, 
allowing the steam to escape, or pierce each with a 
skewer or fork. Serve at once. 

Baked Sweet Potatoes. 

Prepare and bake as white potatoes. Serve as soon as 
done, as they become soggy if allowed to stand. 

Browned Sweet Potatoes. 

Pare cold baked or boiled sweet potatoes, and pour 
over them a mixture of water, sugar and butter, using 
one-quarter cup of water and one tablespoonful of sugar 
and one of butter for three potatoes cut in half length- 
wise. F>ake until browned. 

Mashed Potatoes. 

Wash, pare, and remove imperfect parts from pota- 
toes, and put to steam, or put to cook in a small amount of 
boiling water, allowing one teaspoonful of salt to each pint 
of water, and boil rapidly until done. 

Do not allow pared potatoes to stand in cold water, as 
this detracts from the food value. When the potatoes 



SO HOUSEHOLD SCIENCE. 

are soft, mash fine. A wooden masher is best for this, 
and a wire one is best for stirring. Measure the quantity 
of potatoes by the eye, and for each pint add half a tea- 
spoonful of salt, a little pepper, hot milk to moisten, and 
butter enough to give a good flavor, then stir and beat 
with wire masher until light and creamy white. Use 
cream instead of milk and butter if you have it. 

Riced Potatoes. 

After the potatoes are mashed, seasoned, and beaten, 
press through a potato ricer into the serving dish. 

Creamed Potatoes. 

Cut cold boiled potatoes into thin slices. Put them in 
a small shallow pan, cover with sweet milk and cook until 
the potatoes have absorbed all of the milk. To one pint 
of potatoes add one tablespoonful of butter, half a tea- 
spoonful of salt and one-eighth teaspoonful of pepper, and 
a little chopped parsley. Put the salt into the milk be- 
fore pouring over the potatoes. 

To Cook Carrots. 

When carrots are to be cooked, have on the range, 
boiling in the kettle, such an amount of slightly salted 
water as in your opinion will allow the carrots to barely 
cook until tender without burning. The exact quantity 
of water cannot be given, as it evaporates more rapidly 
some days than others. Put the carrots in whole, or as 
nearly so as the kettle will permit. Keep them boiling 
rapidly until tender. Remove the carrots from the ket- 
tle, and with a sharp knife divide each through the 
centre. For each half pint of liquid in the kettle, meas- 
ure out a level tablespoonful of flour, and the same of 
butter. Stir these together in a cup until thoroughly 
mixed, then put into the boiling liquid in a lump, and 
stir until the flour is cooked, and the liquid smooth and 
thickened a little. Then season to taste with salt and 
pepper, and add a sufficient amount of vinegar to make 



VEGETABLES. 51 

it slightly acid. Return carrots to the kettle, let boil and 
serve. Better steam carrots than boil them when possi- 
ble. 

Carrots in White Sauce. 

Put into a saucepan one level tablespoonful of flour, 
and the same of butter. Let butter melt, and stir the two 
together, but do not brown. Then add one cup of sweet 
milk, and let boil a few minutes. After it actually boils, 
season with salt and pepper, add one heaping teaspoonful 
of parsley, stir up, pour over the carrots, and serve. 

Sauces for Carrots. 

Sauce No. I : Measure one level tablespoonful of flour 
and one of butter for each cup of milk or carrot broth 
used. Stir these together in a cup until perfectly mixed, 
then put on the end of a wooden spoon, and put into the 
boiling liquid, and stir until well cooked and smooth. 
Season with salt and pepper, pour over the carrots and 
serve. 

Sauce No. 2: If there is not liquid enough from the 
carrots to make the sauce, put in enough rich milk to 
make the required amount, thicken in the same manner as 
before, season, and serve. 

Sauce No. 3 : Put in enough beef broth to make the 
required amount of liquid, thicken in the same way, put 
one tablespoonful of vinegar to each cup of liquid, season, 
and serve. If the vinegar is very sharp, use less. 

Prof. Harry Snyder gives the following conclusions 
from his experiments with carrots : 

"These trials suggest that, in order to retain the great- 
est amount of nutrients in the cooking of carrots, (1) 
the pieces should be large, rather than small; (2) the 
boiling should be rapid, in order to give less time for the 
solvent action of the water to act upon the food ingre- 
dients ; (3) as little water as possible should be used; 
and (4) if the matter extracted be used as food along 



52 HOUSEHOLD SCIENCE. 

with the carrots, instead of being thrown away, the loss 
of twenty to thirty per cent., or even more, of the total 
food value may be prevented." 

To Cook Asparagus. 

Break off the woody ends, wash and tie the asparagus 
in bunches of suitable size, cook in a small amount of 
salted boiling water, and season as peas, or serve with 
Hollandaise Sauce. May steam instead of boiling it. 

To Cook Cabbage. 

Cabbage may be cooked in very little water, and to 
most persons is even more palatable than when cooked 
in a large quantity of water. To cook cabbage in this 
way, cut into moderately small pieces, and put to cook 
in a closely covered vessel containing just boiling water 
enough to prevent burning. When boiling rapidly, draw 
to a cooler portion of the range, and let cook slowly 
until tender. Season with salt, pepper, and butter, and 
serve. Cabbage will be cooked by steaming in about the 
same length of time as by boiling. 

Boiled Cabbage. 

Trim off the outside leaves, cut each head into eighths, 
and put into the kettle with a small amount of boiling 
salted water. Cook until tender, keeping just water 
enough to prevent burning. When tender, remove to the 
back of the range to keep warm, until ready to serve, then 
prepare White Sauce No. i and pour over it. 

Hot Slaw No. 1. 

Cut the cabbage fine, cook in very little water until 
tender, and when ready to serve add to one egg 
beaten very light one tablespoonful of sugar, one-half 
cup of hot vinegar, and lastly two tablespoonfuls of cream. 
Season with salt and pepper, pour over the cabbage, stir, 
and serve at once. 



VEGETABLES. 53 

Hot Slaw No. 2- 

Cook cabbage same as in No. I, season with salt, pep- 
per and butter and add enough vinegar to make pleas- 
antly acid. 

The following is from U. S. Dept. Agr., Office Exp. 
Stations, Bulletin No. 43: 

"The kind of water used seems to have more effect on 
the loss of nutrients in cooking cabbage than the tem- 
perature of the water at which the cooking is started. 
In any case the loss is large. In one hundred pounds 
of uncooked cabbage, there are but seven and one-half 
pounds of dry matter, and of this dry matter from two 
and one-fourth to three pounds are lost in the process 
of cooking." Cabbage loses much in cooking, because, 
being leaves, the water has access to a large surface. 
There seems no way to avoid great loss in food value, 
except to use little water in cooking, and cook the water 
out, or make a sauce of it. 
Creamed Cabbage. 

Cut the cabbage into medium fine pieces and steam or 
cook in little water until tender, then pour over it a sea- 
soned white sauce. 

White Sauce No. 1. 

Put into a saucepan two level tablespoonfuls of butter 
and the same of flour. Heat until the butter melts, and 
mix thoroughly together, but do not allow it to brown. 
Pour into this, all at once, one cup of milk. Let cook 
until it thickens, and ceases to taste of raw flour, season 
with salt and pepper, pour over the cabbage, and serve. 

Some find cabbage more palatable when as much water 
as possible is removed before pouring the sauce over it. 
Cabbage may be served with Hollandaise Sauce. 

Hollandaise Sauce No. 1. 

Pour one cup of White Sauce No. 1, boiling hot, over 
a beaten egg, pouring slowly, and beating rapidly. Add 



54 HOUSEHOLD SCIENCE. 

one tablespoonful of vinegar or lemon juice. Put over 
the fire and heat until the egg' cooks a little, but do not 
allow it to curdle. Season and serve. 

Hollandaise Sauce No. 2. 

Cook together, until well mixed, one tablespoonful 
each of butter and flour. Add one cup of thin cream, 
and bring to the boiling point. While boiling, stir in the 
well-beaten yolks of three eggs, in which has been put 
one tablespoonful of vinegar or lemon juice. Add egg 
slowly, and continue cooking, after egg is in, about one 
minute. Remove from fire, add seasoning, also one 
tablespoonful of butter, and the egg whites, beaten stiff. 

To Cook Beets. 

Scrub the beets well, but be careful that the skin is 
unbroken and the top left on, because they will lose their 
beautiful color, as well as have less food value, if broken. 
Cook in boiling water until tender, put into cold water 
and rub off the skin. Cut in slices and serve hot. Sea- 
son with salt, pepper, and butter, or pickle and serve cold. 

To Cook Parsnips. 

Prepare and cook in the same manner as carrots, and 
serve with a sauce made of the water in which they are 
cooked. Or, when tender, pour into a dripping pan, 
and set in the oven. When the water has evaporated, 
brush the parsnips over with butter, and let brown. Or 
they may be cooked dry, and mashed, as potatoes, and 
seasoned with salt, pepper, and butter. 

To Cook Celery. 

Scrub with a vegetable brush to remove all dirt from 
the creases. Cut in half-inch lengths, and cook in a little 
boiling salted water, or steam. When tender, serve with 
White Sauce Xo. i. 



VEGETABLES. 55 

To Cook Onions. 

Peel the onions and put to cook in a small quantity of 
water (boiling and salted) until tender, then serve with 
White Sauce No. I. 

Smothered Onions. 

Peel and put into a covered baking dish, and bake 
until tender; then season with salt and pepper, and add 
one tablespoonful of cream to each onion. Let cook 
fifteen minutes longer, and serve. Or, put the onions 
to cook in a buttered baking dish, season with salt and 
pepper, and baste occasionally with butter while they 
cook. When tender, remove the cover, allow the onions 
to brown, and serve. 

Onions Cooked with Milk. 

Boil in plenty of salted water until about half done, 
then drain the water off, and cover with milk, cook until 
done, and season with salt and pepper to taste. 

To Cook Peas. 

Shell the peas, wash the pods, and put pods to cook 
in a sufficient amount of water to cook the peas. When 
the pods are soft, skim them out and put the peas to cook. 
Keep just water enough to prevent burning, and when 
done season with salt, pepper, and sweet cream. 

To Cook String Beans. 

Break off both ends of the pod, and break what is left 
into two or three parts. Put to cook in sufficient boil- 
ing water to keep them cooking three or four hours. 
Put a piece of salt pork in the bottom of the kettle. Sea- 
son, when done, with salt and pepper. Let the water 
practically all cook out. A little cream may be added, 
or they may be served with a white sauce. 



56 HOUSEHOLD SCIENCE. 

To Cook Tomatoes. 

Lay ripe tomatoes in a pan, stem side up, and cover 
with boiling water, let stand an instant, drain off the 
hot water, and put cold water on them. Remove the 
skins, take out the cores, cut the tomatoes in pieces, and 
put to cook in a granite ware or porcelain kettle, and 
cook until well done. Season with salt, pepper, and but- 
ter, and add bread or cracker crumbs. 

Or make White Sauce No. i, and mix with the tomato 
by first putting a little of the tomato into the sauce, then 
pouring this into the kettle of tomatoes ; stir well to- 
gether and serve. 

To Cook Turnips. 

Choose turnips of medium size, pare, cut in halves, and 
cook until tender in a small amount of boiling salted 
water. Allow the water to evaporate, mash the turnips, 
and add salt, pepper, butter, and a very little sugar. Or 
cut into small cubes before cooking, boil in mutton broth, 
and serve with boiled mutton. 

To Cook Spinach. 

Look the spinach over, and remove all dead leaves and 
roots. Set a colander in a pan of water, put the spinach 
in it, and in this way wash it through several waters to 
remove all particles of sand or dirt. Put in a kettle 
on a cool part of the stove with no more water than 
clings to it. Let cook until tender, season with salt, 
pepper, and butter, and serve. Boiled eggs, sliced, may 
be served with it. 

To Cook Hubbard Squash. 

The hard shell should be broken in pieces, and the 
seeds scraped out. First wash the outside of the squash 
and wipe before breaking. Steam the pieces until 
done, then take out the inside with a spoon, mash, and 
season with salt, pepper, and butter. Or break into 



VEGETABLES. 57 

pieces suitable for serving - , and bake the squash in the 
oven, sprinkling salt and pepper over it when put to 
cook, and serve in the shell. 

Summer Squash. 

Use while very young and tender. Wash clean, cut 
in slices, stew in very little water, and mash and season 
with salt, pepper, and butter. Many saute same as egg 
plant. 

Green Corn. 

Remove husks and silks, and steam the corn, or cook 
in just enough boiling water to keep from burning, and 
serve on the ear. Corn may be cooked in the husk by 
leaving the fine inner covering, but there is no perceptible 
difference in the quality. 

To Stew Green Corn. 

Remove husks and silks, and score each row of grains 
down the center with a sharp knife. Cut off a thin slice 
from the top of the grains, and with a kitchen knife 
scrape out the contents. Cook in a small quantity of 
salted water, letting cook gently, keeping covered, and 
stirring occasionally. When done, season with salt, pep- 
per, and butter. Cream is better than butter if you 
have it. 

Or, the corn may be partly cooked on the cob, cut off, 
seasoned with salt, pepper, cream, and a very little butter 
heated to the boiling point, and served. 

To Steam Rice. 

Put over the fire in a double boiler three cups of milk 
or water, or of the two mixed. Put into it one tea- 
spoonful of salt. Look over one cup of rice, wash, put 
into the boiling liquid and cook, covered, without stir- 
ring, until the grains of rice are so soft as to be easily 
crushed between the thumb and finger. Take the cover 
off and let the rice dry a little. The grains will be dis- 
tinct, and the rice palatable. 



58 HOUSEHOLD SCIENCE. 

To Cook Rice in Water. 

Put in a saucepan over the fire ten cups of water, add- 
ing a tablespoonful of salt. When the liquid boils, put 
a cup of rice in. Let boil until soft, as before. Keep the 
quantity of water the same by adding boiling water as 
it evaporates. Drain in a puree sieve, and dry it off on 
the range shelf. Rice cooked in this way is very white, 
fluffy, and beautiful, but less nutritious and palatable 
than when cooked the other way. 

Stuffed Tomatoes. 

Wash and wipe medium-sized, firm, ripe tomatoes. Cut 
off a slice from the stem end, and with a spoon take out 
some of the seeds, but not the core. Fill the cavities 
with bread crumbs seasoned with butter, pepper, and 
salt. Replace the slice on the top, place in a pan, and 
bake fifteen or twenty minutes. Serve hot. 

Escalloped Tomatoes. 

Select perfect, ripe tomatoes. Put in a pan, pour on 
enough boiling water to cover them, and let stand 
one minute. Pour off the hot water, cover with cold 
water, and remove the skins. Butter a baking dish on 
the bottom and sides. Cover the bottom of the dish with 
breadcrumbs made from crusts dried and rolled or ground. 
Slice the tomatoes one-half an inch thick, and lay over 
the crumbs. Cover the tomatoes with crumbs, sprinkle 
with salt and pepper, and drop on bits of butter. Add 
another layer of tomatoes, another of bread crumbs, butter 
and seasoning ; continue in this manner until the dish 
is filled to within two inches of the top. Have bread 
crumbs on the top. Place in the oven and bake twenty 
or twenty-five minutes. Serve in the dish in which they 
are baked. 

Sauted Tomatoes. 

Select firm tomatoes, not over ripe, wash and wipe. 
Cut a medium-sized tomato into four slices, dredge with 



VEGETABLES. 59 

flour, saute in a hot spider containing one tablesponful 
of butter. Brown on one side, turn, and brown on the 
other. Remove to a warm platter, and sprinkle with salt 
and pepper. Into the spider put one-fourth cup of cream, 
let boil up, turn over the tomatoes, and serve. The slices 
of tomato may be dipped in beaten egg and dusted with 
very fine bread crumbs, before sauteing. 

Escalloped Macaroni with Tomatoes. 

Look the macaroni over carefully, and see that it is 
free from insects. Break into inch or two-inch lengths, 
and put to cook in plenty of salted boiling water. Cook 
rapidly until done. When done, it is clear and soft. 
Turn into a colander and allow it to drain. Cover the 
bottom of a baking dish with bread crumbs, put in about 
one inch of macaroni, over this lay sliced tomatoes, and 
sprinkle lightly with seasoned bread crumbs. Then add 
another layer of the macaroni, another of tomatoes, and 
a dust of crumbs. Continue in this manner until the pan 
is as full as desired, having tomatoes on top. Cover with 
a layer of the seasoned crumbs one-half inch thick. Bake 
until the crumbs are a nice brown, — twenty or twenty- 
five minutes, — and serve in the dish in which it is baked. 

To Cook Salsify or Vegetable Oysters. 

Wash the roots clean, and remove rootlets. Scrape the 
thin skin off, and keep the roots in vinegar water, as they 
discolor very readily. Cut into bits, and cook one and 
one-half hours in boiling salted water. Keep just enough 
water to prevent burning. Season same as peas. Salt, 
pepper, and cream give best results, but it is good served 
with White Sauce No. 1. 

Corn Oysters. 

Select roasting-ear corn, and prepare for cooking. 
Score each row of grains, then with a sharp knife cut off 
the top of each row about one-third down, and with a 
kitchen knife scrape out the pulp. With each cup of 



60 HOUSEHOLD SCIENCE. 

corn mix one tablespoonful of flour, one-half a tea- 
spoonful of salt, and one tablespoonful of cream. Lastly, 
fold in one egg white, beaten very light. Drop one ta- 
blespoonful at a time on a greased griddle, and bake same 
as griddle cakes. These are fine if one-third as much 
sweet-bread as corn is used. To make corn oysters from 
left-over corn, grate the roasting ears which have been 
left from dinner, then proceed as with fresh corn. 

To Cook Egg Plant. 

Pare the egg plant and cut into slices one-fourth of an 
inch thick, and sprinkle with salt and pepper. Dip the 
slices in beaten egg, then in fine bread crumbs, and 
saute in a spider with plenty of bacon fat or clarified but- 
ter. Brown on both sides. Or the slices may be simply 
dusted with flour. If, when the slices are brown, they 
do not seem perfectly cooked, draw the spider to a cooler 
part of the stove and finish cooking. 

Egg plant is also very nice dipped in a fritter batter 
and sauted. 

Baked Egg Plant. 

Prepare the egg plant as for sauteing, cook in salted 
water for ten minutes, and drain. In a greased baking 
dish put first a layer of seasoned bread crumbs, then a 
layer of the egg plant, more crumbs and bits of butter, 
more egg plant, and so continue until as much is used as 
desired, having crumbs on the top. Bake twenty minutes 
in a moderate oven. 

Egg-Plant Oysters. 

Prepare and cook the plant as for baking. When soft, 
drain and mash through a sieve. To one-half pint of egg 
plant use one egg, well beaten, two tablespoonfuls of 
milk, one-fourth cup of flour, and one-half as much bread 
or cracker crumbs as flour. Season with salt and pepper 
and saute o r bake as griddle cakes. 



VEGETABLES. 61 

DRIED VEGETABLES. 

All dried vegetables should be looked over, washed, 
and put to soak in cold water, and left until they absorb 
all the water they will, or at least for several hours, then 
cooked in the water in which soaked. Some prefer to 
throw away the water in which dried vegetables are 
soaked, and thus have a milder flavor. Such treatment 
takes away a portion of the food value, and whether it is 
advisable to do so each person must decide for herself. 

Dessicated beans or shredded string beans are some- 
times included in army supplies. 

Some vegetables, as string beans, cucumbers, and cab- 
bage, may be preserved in salt or in vinegar for winter use. 




Bean Pot and Brown Bread Tins. 

String beans preserved in salt will keep for months, but 
they undergo a change similar to that produced in cab- 
bage when sauerkraut is made. They are much used by 
some people, and are no doubt a good thing, as they add 
one more vegetable to the winter diet. 

White Beans in Cream. 

Look over the desired quantity of dry beans, wash, and 



62 HOUSEHOLD SCIENCE. 

put to soak in cold water to cover them. Let stand over 
night, or for several hours, until they have absorbed all 
the water they will take ; then put to cook, using the 
water in which they have soaked, and adding enough 
boiling water to cover. For each pint of beans used add 
half a tablespoonful of salt, and one level tablespoonful 
of sugar. Set the bean jar in the oven and cover. Let 
the beans cook until soft, but not dark. When done, make 
a white sauce by using one tablespoonful of butter and 
one of flour to each cup of milk (as directed for making 
White Sauce Xo. 1). When the sauce is smooth, season 
to taste, and pour over the beans. 

Stewed Beans. 

Proceed in same way as for white beans in cream, ex- 
cept cook a piece of salt pork with the beans. Let water 
nearly all cook out, season, and serve. 

.Baked Beans. 

Beans one pint. Soak over night in plenty of cold 
water, and put to cook in cold water enough to cover the 
beans. Add one-half tablespoonful of salt, and one-fourth 
of a teaspoonful of soda. When boiling, drain off the wa- 
ter, and in the bottom of the bean jar put one-fourth of 
a pound of salt pork, scored, two level tablespoonfuls of 
sugar, and one-half scant tablespoonful of salt. Put beans 
into the jar, cover them with hot water, cook in a slow 
oven for ten, twelve, or fifteen hours. 

Prepare and bake lentils same as beans. 

Lentil Pudding. 

Prepare the lentils, and soak as before, then slowly 
steam them until done. Cook a piece of salt pork with 
them for seasoning, or season with butter. 




Cereal Grains. 



CHAPTER VI. 



PREPARED CEREALS. 



Cereal foods are made of the farinaceous (meaning' 
floury) seeds of plants belonging- to the grass family, 
and in some instances, doubtless, in part, of the seeds of 
such leguminous plants as peas and beans. These valu- 
able grain-bearing plants were, probably, among the first 
to furnish food to the human race. 

Pliny speaks of wheat, in writing of the ancient Roman 
people. China has history of the use of cereal grains as 
early as 2,700 years before the Christian era. And there 
is evidence that the lake dwellers of prehistoric Switzer- 
land used seeds of millet as food. In America the na- 
tives were using corn when white men came to the west- 
ern world, and the evidence seems complete that the an- 
cient Cliff Dwellers of the Mexican and the southern part 
of America used corn as food. The American Indians 
residing in the north used large quantities of wild rice or 
Indian rice for food. All the cereal grains now largely 
used, excepting maize, have been in use in the Eastern 
hemisphere since ancient times. 

While the culture of the cereal grains had made some 
progress throughout the preceding centuries, the greatest 
advance along this line has come within the past century. 
The machinery for cultivating and transporting cereal 
grains, and products made from them, has made most 
wonderful strides during the lives of the present genera- 
tion. Processes in the manufacture of cereal foods from 
cereal grains form one of the marvels of modern prog- 
ress. And the rate of this progress seems to be acceler- 
ated as each year's experience is added to the last. 



FREPARED CEREALS. 65 

It is not long since our ancestors had only the crudest 
means of grinding grains, and no thought occurred to 
them of pearling and mixing, and partially cooking and 
flavoring, and otherwise preparing these foods into the 
many forms how found on our markets. 

Our grandmothers were pleased with the simple 
straight flour from which the coarsest bran had been re- 
moved. They took great comfort in the bolted cornmeal 
and the oatmeal which was used only occasionally by 
others than the Scotch. These foods, together with rice 
and hominy, made up the list of cereal preparations. Now 
we have our wheat flour graded so that we have patent 
flour for bread, pastry flour for pastry uses, and various 
brands for special purposes. Instead of the uneven sam- 
ple of flour furnished to the farmer with toll retained by 
the old time burr mill in return for his grist of wheat, 
we now have the uniform patent flour made every day 
the same by the modern roller mill with its wonderful 
machinery. We have also not only cornmeal which is 
better bolted and more uniformly ground, and oatmeal of 
finer quality, but we have dozens of other more or less 
popular meals and flours, and cracked and polished 
grains, which we have come to know as "cereals." 

America's rich soil, energetic people, favorable climate, 
and her mechanical and commercial genius have com- 
bined in the production of large amounts of cereal foods. 
The best varieties of these crops have been gleaned from 
the whole world, and in many instances they have been 
improved upon. Here, as in manufacturing, progress 
seems to be making rapid strides, and bids fair to hold a 
permanent place. Owing to the fact that farmers can so 
cheaply produce at home a variety of foods, they have not 
felt the need of rapidly taking up the use of even the 
better forms of manufactured cereal foods put upon the 
markets during the last one or two decades. Doubtless 
their conservatism in this, as in many other things, has 



66 HOUSEHOLD SCIENCE. 

kept them from enjoying advantages which are within 
their easy reach. Most cereal foods are economical in 
that for a given amount of money a large amount of food 
material is purchased. They are healthful in that they 
lessen the tendency to eating too much meat, and they 
furnish all the elements needed to nourish the body. They 
have bulk enough to give the digestive organs their need- 
ed amount of muscular exercise, yet they rarely cause in- 
digestion. 

Cereal foods tend to good morals, since, when they 
form a goodly portion of the daily food, there is no ex- 
cessive stimulant to the body, nerves, or mind. They are 
sufficiently bulky so that there is little tendency to overeat- 
ing, and thus overloading the system with an excess of 
flesh formers, heat formers, or ash which must be car- 
ried out, requiring excessive labor on the part of the ex- 
cretory organs. These foods are very appetizing, and 
since many of them are especially relished when eaten 
with cream, which is nowhere so abundant and inexpen- 
sive as on the farm, no class of people should appreciate 
them more than farmers. 

Manufacturers rival each other in embellishing wrap- 
pers and inventing novel names for their wares. Extrav- 
agant claims are made for these foods, and much is said 
to induce the public to believe that, by some peculiar 
method of manufacture, an article far superior to simple, 
plain oatmeal or rolled wheat has been produced. The 
fact is that there is, in most cases, more variation in price 
than in food value, and the relation between quality and 
cost is sometimes difficult to discover. The package goods 
have one merit, and that is, the manufacturer is made 
directly responsible to the consumer. The oatmeal sold 
in bulk is practically uniform in composition, and, unless 
injured by long keeping and exposure, there is little, if 
any, discoverable difference in quality and flavor. The 
package cereals usually make greater claims for quick 



PREPARED CEREALS. 67 

cooking than can be well substantiated. Granting that, 
in such cereals, a portion of the starch grains have been 
crushed and partly converted into more soluble forms by 
means of heat, pressure, and moisture, thus lessening the 
time required for cooking, yet experience proves that 
they usually have a better flavor when cooked half an 
hour than when removed from the fire after ten minutes' 
cooking, as the packages sometimes direct. The carbo- 
hydrates of cereals are mostly in the form of small, hard, 
starch grains which are not easily attacked by the digest- 
ive fluids. Experiments made in feeding cooked cereals 
to domestic animals seem to verify the statement that lit- 
tle cooking renders them less digestible than when eaten 
raw, but a long, slow, thorough cooking brings about 
good results. 

Cellulose is the woody portion of plants. In such foods 
as spinach, the cellulose is young, tender, and digestible. 
In grains, the cellulose is. found in its mature state, and 
can hardly be classed as a food stuff for man, yet it plays 
an important part in giving bulk to the food, and aids in 
preventing the tendency to too concentrated food. It acts 
as a mechanical stimulus to promote the peristalsis of 
the intestines. Bunge, in his Physiological and Patholog- 
ical Chemistry, says : "While it is urged that the rapid 
and continual movement of the intestinal contents in con- 
sequence of the irritating action of the woody fibre pre- 
vents the complete utilization of the food, at the same 
time," he continues, "it appears to me that the advantages 
of food containing cellulose far outweigh the drawbacks." 

All oily matters in grains are termed "fats." These are 
similar in composition to carbohydrates, but the fats are 
poorer in oxygen and richer in carbon and hydrogen ; 
therefore the heat equivalent of fats is much greater, — 
that is, a pound of fat will produce more animal heat 
than a pound of starch or sugar. Buckwheat is a good ex- 
ample of a heat-giving cereal. It is more agreeable when 



68 HOUSEHOLD SCIENCE. 

used in cold weather, and by those who exercise freely. 
It is used principally in the form of griddle cakes, though 
it is sometimes found in the markets in the form of a 
specially prepared cereal. Cereals contain a small por- 
tion of the several mineral matters which are necessary 
for both bone and flesh, but there is usually no deficiency 
of most of these in our diet. Phosphorus is considered 
of much importance, and special efforts are said to be 
made to secure it in milling. 

One authority on physiological chemistry says that, 
with the exception of preparations of corn and oats, all 
the cereal foods lack the fat necessary to a normal diet. 
The proteids and carbohydrates occur in the proper pro- 
portion in them all. Since human beings select their foods 
largely on account of flavor, why not supply the fat to 
the foods in the form of cream. A dish of breakfast food 
which is eaten under protest when served with milk will 
be relished when cream is used. It is not extravagant, 
because the cereal costs only a few cents a pound and the 
willingness with which it is eaten well repays the cost of 
the cream, which, on the farm, is not expensive. To com- 
pensate for the lack of cream in oatmeal and cornmeal 
mush, a garnish of fruit can sometimes be used. Straw- 
berries, peaches, raspberries, and bananas, each in its fresh 
state, are considered best for this purpose, as the flavors 
are sufficiently pronounced so that the two foods, eaten 
together, are very appetizing. 

The manufacture of special cereal foods is taking on a 
wonderful development. These foods have the well-bal- 
anced composition of the cereal grains from which they 
are made. The staple cereal foods, as wheat flour, corn- 
meal, and oatmeal are the sources of the cheapest food 
materials we have. Their large use not only does 
not endanger health, but also prevents our over-eating 
of the too rich albuminous foods and sweets. Good 
bread prevents our eating the less wholesome cakes. Oat- 



PREPARED CEREALS. 69 

meal for breakfast aids in avoiding the too free use of 
meats, and cornmeal mush as a part of the evening meal 
fills our stomachs with nourishing yet light food, and 
allows us to have sweet dreams. Especially are these 
cereal foods a blessing to growing children and to adults 
during periods of lessened activity, as in winter, when 
less muscular exertion makes a lighter diet well nigh im- 
perative. Flour, oatmeal, and cornmeal are so cheap as 
compared with most other forms of food that farmers 
should exercise great care in securing that of good qual- 
ity. It is likewise important that these foods be cooked 
in the most perfect manner. Very many people with dis- 
eased digestion are constantly distressed, injured, and 
made far less able to be happy, to perform work of any 
kind, or to be useful to others, by eating wheaten bread 
which is improperly made. Bread made by a slow pro- 
cess, with low temperature, or with the dough now warm, 
then cold, develops within itself not only a yeast fer- 
mentation, but other ferments as well. A mere trace 
of an acid developed by injurious fermentation, an 
amount barely sufficient for the taste or the smell to de- 
tect, will disturb the digestion of many people in health 
as well as those having weak digestion. The most im- 
portant matter in connection with oatmeal is to have it 
made of sweet and well-flavored grain. It should always 
be fresh and well cooked. Under such circumstances, it 
will be palatable, and may be used often and is always rel- 
ished. Cornmeal should be nicely prepared, and should be 
properly made into mush, that it may be enjoyed for sup- 
per; and a remaining portion fried for breakfast is very 
acceptable. The fact that farmers have fine milk and 
cream at first cost is a most favorable circumstance to 
their using large quantities of cornmeal and oatmeal 
mush. These foods are often more delicious, and proba- 
bly more healthful, than many of the modern compounds 
which require much more labor in their preparation. They 



70 



HOUSEHOLD SCIENCE. 



are also very inexpensive, as will be shown further on in 
these articles. 

In order to have good health, people must have food 
that supplies the quantities of nutrients which the body 
requires. Yet this is not all that is necessary. The food 
must be such that the person can digest it, else it does him 
harm, rather than good. 

Experiments in the digestibility of foods lead to the 
belief that fat as found in pork is difficult of digestion; 
and when taken in large quantities, a considerable portion 
of it fails to be utilized in the system, and thus entails 
unnecessary work on the different organs to remove it, 
with no benefit to the body. 

It would be well, then, to replace a part of the meat 
with some food which will furnish the necessary ingredi- 
ents in a more digestible form. The cereals, when prop- 
erly cooked, are very completely digested and assimi- 
lated. 

The quantity of protein in cornmeal is small as com- 
pared with some other food stuffs, but it is a valuable 
nutrient because easily digested. The fat of butter and 
cream is more digestible than that of bacon, owing in 
part, probably, to the more delicate structure of the cell 





o 

iz; 


(4 

<a 


si 
m 
< 


a 
o 

h 

P4 


"2 
■ - 

■° E? 

>- — 

c3 
D 


<! 

&♦ 




5 

100 

19 

13 

1 

25 

1 

1 

2 

3 

2 

10 

9 

5 

4 

13 

11 

13 


12.1 
12.5 
11.6 
12.5 
10.6 
10.8 
10.4 
10.4 
9.7 
11.9 
10.8 
14.3 
12.9 
11.9 
10.8 
7.2 
7.2 
12.4 
32.0 


1.2 

.5 

.5 

.5 

.4 

3.0 

1.6 

.9 

.2 

2.6 

1.3 

1.4 

.9 

.4 

1.4 

1.9 

1.9 

.4 

.1 


14.2 
11.3 
11.8 
10.4 
9.4 
11.7 
11.4 
12.3 
11.1 
10.5 
9.3 
6.1 
8.9 
8.2 
11.2 
15.6 
16.9 
7.8 
.9 


70.6 

74.6 

75.0 

75.6 

78.6 

72.9 

74.5 

75.0 

77.6 

72.8 

77.6 

77.2 

75.1 

78.9 

71.4 

68.0 

66.8 

79. 

56. 


1.9 




1.1 




1.1 




1.0 




1.0 




1.6 




2.1 




1.4 




1.4 




2.2 




1.2 




1.0 




2.2 




.6 




5.2 




7.3 




7.2 




.4 




.1 



PREPARED CEREALS. 71 

walls in which the fat globules are inclosed, or the ab- 
sence of such walls. A glance at the preceding table, 
compiled by Prof. W. O. Atwater, will show that oat- 
meal has rather more protein than wheat flour. 

In comparing wheat bread with wheat flour, we find 
that the chief difference is that the bread has a larger 
proportion of water, and a greater amount of fat, owing 
to the water and milk used in its preparation. As we run 
down the scale, we find that the cereals prepared from 
barley rank next to wheat flour in the amount of protein 
contained. Cornmeal contains more protein than buck- 
wheat flour, and rice ranks lowest in proteid matter. 
There are many cereals prepared from oats, but coarse 
oatmeal, fine oatmeal, and rolled oats usually give a sat- 
isfactory variety in this cereal. These can all be bought 
in bulk for two or three cents per pound. They are all 
cooked in the same manner; the only difference in the 
process being that the coarser ones require a longer time 
and a greater proportion of water. 

The protein in cereals is in the form of gluten, and is 
very hard when dry, and needs long cooking. Starch, in 
a raw or half-cooked state, is neither very palatable nor 
digestible. Each starch cell is surrounded by a thin wall 
of cellulose, and this must be softened by the heat and 
moisture, so that the starch cells may absorb water, dis- 
tend, and become soft and digestible. Coarse oatmeal re- 
quires a very long, slow cooking to thoroughly prepare 
it for the action of the digestive fluids. It is well to have 
this for breakfast on the morning following baking or 
ironing day, as the fire necessary for the extra work can 
be utilized in partially cooking the cereal for the next 
morning's breakfast. 

Among "cereals" prepared from corn, the good old 
hominy, a dish borrowed from the Indians, awakens 
pleasant memories in the minds of those whose youthful 
palates were tickled by this delicious and wholesome ar- 



72 HOUSEHOLD SCIENCE. 

tide of food. The coarse hominy of early days, in Amer- 
ica, was made by soaking the grains of corn in weak lye 
made from wood ashes, until the outside covering became 
loose. The grain was then taken from the liquid and 
washed in two or three clean waters, and the hulls rubbed 
off by the hands. It was then soaked in clear water to 
remove all trace of the lye. When ready, it was boiled 
in slightly salted water for some hours, until it became 
perfectly tender. By placing it out in the pure cold air, 
and allowing it to freeze, the hominy was thought to be 
improved, as it was more tender, and slightly changed 
in taste. It was eaten with milk or sauted in butter or 
meat drippings. This method of preparing it was very 
simple. A spider containing a generous supply of what- 
ever fat was to be used for cooking the hominy was 
placed upon the stove and allowed to become hot. Then 
the hominy, free from water, was put in and stirred 
about and seasoned to taste with salt and pepper, and, 
when thoroughly heated, was served in a hot dish. 

In some localities of the far west, wheat and barley 
were hulled by some home-made device, and used as 
cereals. Cornmeal mush with cool whole milk often 
makes a satisfying supper on a winter evening, and such 
a repast usually leaves no ill effects. 

In addition to the whole-grained hominy, coarse hom- 
iny, fine hominy, and other cereals are common in our 
markets. These can be purchased in retail quantities at 
two to four cents per pound. Coarse hominy, like coarse 
oatmeal, requires a very long time for cooking. 

To Cook Coarse Hominy. 

Use six cups of boiling liquid to each cup of hominy. 
Salt to taste. Cook six to ten hours, either over a slow 
fire, or in a double boiler. The only object in using 
the double boiler is that it is easier to keep the food con- 
stantly cooking, and there is no danger of burning. 



PREPARED CEREALS. 73 

To Cook Fine Hominy. 

Use four cups of liquid to one cup of hominy. Cook 
from three to six hours. Salt to taste. 

To Cook Cerealine Flakes. 

This is one of the specially prepared cereals which is 
partially cooked during the process of manufacture. 
The directions with this package cereal sometimes read 
"Cook one minute," but one usually finds fifteen min- 
utes cooking to be more satisfactory. 

To Make Cornmeal Mush. 

Use four cups of water to one cup of cornmeal. 
Have three cups of the water salted to taste, and boiling 
in the vessel in which the meal is to be cooked. Wet the 
cornmeal in one cup of cold water, then put into the 
boiling water, carefully stirring to avoid lumps, and cook 
half an hour directly over the fire. Stir often enough 
to prevent burning, or set the close-covered vessel con- 
taining the mush in a kettle of hot water, also covered, 
and cook two hours. If the mush is to be cooled and 
fried, use half a measure more of water to the same 
amount of cornmeal, as the mush thickens in cooling, 
though the fried mush should never be soft enough to 
break when cooked. 

Mush from Coarse Oat Meal. 

Measure and put into the upper part of the double 
boiler, or into a tin pail having a tight-fitting cover, a 
sufficient amount of water to make the quantity of mush 
desired, using the same measuring dipper or cup for 
both the water and the oatmeal. Set aside one-fifth as 
much oatmeal as you have hot water in the kettle. When 
the water is boiling, salt it to suit the taste, and sift in 
the oatmeal with the hand. Do not stir the oatmeal, as 
this renders it stringy and less palatable, but lift from 
the bottom of the vessel with a spoon to prevent burn- 
ing. Let cook directly over the fire until it swells and 



74 HOUSEHOLD SCIENCE. 

ceases to settle to the bottom, then set in the lower part 
of the double boiler, or, if in a pail, cover the pail closely 
and set in a kettle of boiling water; cover closely and 
let boil from six to ten hours. 

Mush from Fine Oatmeal. 

Proceed in the same manner as for coarse oatmeal, 
except take one-fourth as much meal as water and cook 
three to six hours. 

Mush from Rolled Oats. 

Use one part of cereal to three parts of boiling water 
and cook one and one-half to three hours. 

To Cook luce. 

Free the rice from all objectionable parts, and wash 
well to remove any loose starch. Put a cup of prepared 
rice into two quarts of boiling water, and cook rapidly 
for fifteen or twenty minutes, or until the grains are 
tender, drain in a sieve or colander, and set on a warm 
part of the range to dry off. 

A more economical way of cooking rice, and one which 
is equally as good when skillfully done, is to put a cup 
of prepared rice into three cups of boiling water, slightly 
salted. Let boil rapidly until the grains swell some, then 
put into the double kettle. When done, set on back of 
range to dry off, and lift from bottom with a fork. 

Vitos. 

One and one-half cups of milk, one and one-half cups 
of water, one teaspoonful of salt, three-fourths cup of 
Vitos. Let milk and water boil, then stir the Vitos into 
it, and let cook one-half hour in double boiler. 

Cracked Wheat. 

One cup of cracked wheat, one quart and one cup of 
water (five cups), two level teaspoonfuls of salt. Let 
the water boil, then stir the cereal into it, and cook five 
or six hours in a double boiler. 



PREPARED CEREALS. 



75 



ANALYSIS OF CEREALS.— Compiled by Jenkins and Winstok. 



Wheat, spring 

Wheat, winter 

Wheat, all varieties 



CQ 








a 


B^ 








a 




<L (-! 






J3 

< 


O 






13. 


10.4 


1.9 


12.5 


1.8 


71.2! 


26. 


10.5 


1.8 


11.8 


1.8 


72.0 


3.0 


10.5 


1.8 


11.9 


1.8 


71.91 



El 

pu 

2.2 
2.1 
2.1 



COMPOSITION OF CEREAL FOODS.— Slosson. 



Pettijohn's Breakfast Food. 

Farina 

Cracked Wheat 

Wheatlets 

Ralston's Breakfast Food.... 

Quaker Oats 

Bulk Oat Meal 

CerealiD» 

Velvet Meal, (Corn) 



9.5 
10.!t 
9.3 
10.0 
9.7 
7.4 
8.7 
9.5 
9.S 





to 












■P 






cS 






fc- 






•a 






(-3 










2 




X5 




Cu 


O 


& 


10.5 


76.9 


1.4 


10.9 


75.9 


1.5 


12.6 


74.4 


2.2 


10.4 


76.2 


1.7 


15.1 


71.7 


1.9 


17.2 


66.6 


6.8 


17.7 


65.8 


6.5 


9.9 


78.7 


1.2 


6.7 


80.5 


2.3 



7.6 
15.8 
7.B 
4.3 
11.2 
7.9 
2.5 
9.2 
4.1 



Cts. 



Average Analysis of Wheat Flour, Corn Meal and Oat Meal. 


Wheat Flour 


12.4 
15.0 
7.0 


0.5 
1.4 
2.0 


10.8 
9.2 
14.7 


75.1 
70.6 
68.3 


1.1 

3.S 
7.1 













References: Univ. Wyoming, Bulletin No. 33, pp. 82, 83; 
Univ. Minn. Agr. Station Bulletin No. 54, p. 78; U. S. Dept. 
Agr., Division of Chemistry, Bulletin No. 45, pp. 30, 31, 38-40. 



CHAPTER VII. 

WHEAT AND WHEAT FLOUR. 

Wheat. 

From very early times, wheat has held the place of 
one of the choicest foods for man. Next to rice it is 
the most extensively used by the human race of any of 
the cereal grains, and the most used among the civilized 
nations. Corn and other coarse grains can be produced 
at less cost than wheat, and are not so suitable for 
human food, which accounts for wheat never having come 
into general use as food for stock. There have been 
times when, owing to the enormous production of 
wheat, its price in some localities was only a trifle more 
than that of corn. Under these circumstances, farmers 
fed wheat in large quantities. One state (Kansas), says 
Mr. Coburn, used in this way 4,000,000 bushels of 
wheat in the year 1893. The following year more than 
twice that amount was dealt out to stock. 

Prof. Henry, of Wisconsin says, "that wheat was 
found to be a food of great palatability, though not equal 
to corn for fattening purposes ; yielding perhaps ten per 
cent, less returns in feeding fattening stock." He found 
that wheat furnished abundance of nutriment, and, 
through variety, gave edge to the appetite. In this we 
may learn a lesson from the lower animals, — vary the 
diet instead of catering to a poor appetite by concocting 
unwholesome dishes. The Prairie Farmer, in 1894, asked 
Swift & Co., packers in Chicago, to state their opinion 
as to the character of the flesh of wheat and corn fed 
animals. They replied: "There is quite a perceptible 
difference between wheat and corn fed hogs and cattle. 
We do not consider that wheat-fed stock yields as well as 



WHEAT AND WHEAT FLOUR. 77 

corn-fed stock, there being less fat. The lean meat on 
wheat-fed cattle has a somewhat brighter red than on 
corn-fed cattle. The lean meat from wheat-fed hogs is 
very nice, but as the yield is not so good, there is no 
particular advantage in it to packers, but we consider 
wheat-fed stock worth as much as corn-fed stock." 

Physical Structure of the Wheat Grain. 

To study satisfactorily the structure of a grain of wheat, 
the aid of the microscope is necessary. The use of the 
microscope helps the miller much in determining the 
success of his operations. By treating a small portion 
of flour with chemicals, he may be able to know whether 
the number of bran particles in the flour is large. By 
the aid of careful inspection, he can ascertain whether 
the bran is intact or whether portions of one or the other 
of its layers will be ground up in the flour. 

If we could take a grain of wheat in our fingers and 
remove layer after layer, we would find three parchment- 
like coverings, which, by chemical analysis, give a com- 
position about the same as that of wheat straw. For 
stock it has practically the same feeding value as 
straw, but' its nourishing value for man is slight. For 
human beings only the young cellulose, as found in let- 
tuce, spinach, etc., has any value as a nutrient. Cellulose 
is, however, necessary to give bulk to the food, and aid 
in the continual movement of the contents of the diges- 
tive tract, but for man it is better obtained in mature 
vegetables than in the form of bran. White flour is more 
valuable, pound for pound, than whole- wheat flour or gra- 
ham flour, for the diet of most people, whether sick or 
well. Commercial bran contains more than the outer 
parchment-like layer of cellulose. The inner layer of 
bran consists of cellulose, which contains considerable 
protein, useful as stock food. 

Effects of the Germ on Flour. 

Whether the flour makes a better food with the germ 



78 HOUSEHOLD SCIENCE. 

incorporated, or without it, is a question to which the 
milling world has given much time and attention. Some 
authorities, among whom are Graham and Richardson, 
are of the opinion that the germ should by all means be 
removed. They believe that it not only discolors the 
flour, but has a decided tendency to cause it to become 
rancid. If the wheat is slightly unsound, the germ pres- 
ent exerts a marked diastasic influence on the flour. 
Diastase is a peculiar substance generated during the 
germination of grain for the brewery, and tends to ac- 
celerate the formation of sugar during the fermentation 
of the yeast. Those who favor incorporating the germ 
in the flour claim that it renders the flour sweeter, and 
that a more palatable bread results from its use. 

*"Raw grain diastase is produced during the produc- 
tion of the embryo in the growing and unripe seed, and 
probably then acts as translocation diastase for the pur- 
pose of preparing nutritive matter for the developing 
embryo. The portion of such diastase remaining unused 
in the ripe seed constitutes the diastase of raw or un- 
germinated grain." Jago says : "Milling experiments 
on a large scale have been made on the germy semolinas 
produced during gradual reduction. Semolinas are sep- 
arations from the second, third, fourth, and fifth breaks. 
They are similar to middlings, but are coarser, and con- 
tain more germ, and less of the flour-forming portions of 
the wheat. Such semolinas, on being reduced on stones, 
yield a dark-colored, unsatisfactory flour, which produces 
a low quality of bread. On rolling and repurifying these 
semolinas, the resulting flour is of good color, and yields 
bread of high quality. So far, experiments afford evi- 
dence directly in favor of removing the germ. The 
steady demand for roller-made flour demonstrates that 
the opinion of the public as consumers is in favor of its 
removal." 

*J ago— Page 281. 



WHEAT AND WHEAT FLOUR. 79 

Wheat as Food. 

In the microscopical and chemical examination of wheat 
bran, it is found to contain, like straw, a large amount 
of cellulose. In addition to this and the aleurone cells 
which are found on the inner coats, it carries with it some 
starch when it is separated from the rest of the wheat 
kernel. Bran is found, in some instances, to be a val- 
uable food for farm stock. It contains a large amount 
of protein and mineral matter, and the bulk furnished by 
the cellulose is in some cases an advantage. Wheat is 
such a popular food for man that the production of by- 
products is very large. The by-products are those por- 
tions of wheat which are undesirable for human food, but 
make valuable and nutritious food for domestic animals. 
In the manufacture of flour, about twenty-five to thirty 
per cent, of the wheat grain is offal, and is available for 
stock feeding. 

When cereals are manufactured from wheat, a much 
larger per cent, of it is available for human food. 
Color in this case plays an unimportant part, and the 
germ is very palatable when properly manipulated and 
used. "Cereals," says Prof. Atwater, "when properly 
prepared, are very completely digested and absorbed." 

Bunge says, "that the theory that the normal food of 
the adult is furnished by the proteids and carbohydrates 
in the proportion met with in cereals, and that this diet 
would only require the addition of fat, seems to be con- 
firmed by experience. The laborers in some districts in 
Bavaria, who do the hardest work, are said to live on a 
diet prepared from flour and lard." While this may 
prove that, in cases of extreme necessity, people can live 
on such a diet, it does not prove that in this land of 
plenty it is a wise thing to thus make the ration. 

Fat is an important element of food, but the greater 
portion of fat has been removed from the wheat by dis- 
carding the germ in the manufacture of flour. The 



80 HOUSEHOLD SCIENCE. 

amount of fat in the germ is given at from nine to twelve 
per cent. 

Starch makes up the principal part of the bulk of the 
wheat grain. In different analyses it varies from sixty- 
three to sixty-seven per cent. This is an important food 
element, as it may serve as fuel, and yield energy in the 
form of heat and muscular strength, or it can be trans- 
formed into fat. 

Dextrine exists in sound wheat in small quantity. The 
presence of this in either wheat or flour in large quan- 
tity would be objectionable. Much sugar indicates un- 
sound wheat. A rather low percentage of soluble ex- 
tracts is an indication of soundness. The soluble ex- 
tracts are soluble proteids, sugar, dextrine, potassium, 
and phosphates. 

Gluten is a very important element in the wheat or flour. 
It is not only important that it be present in sufficient 
quantity, but its quality must also be considered. Flour 
containing poor gluten makes fewer loaves of bread to 
the number of pounds used, and those few are not well 
risen. Poor gluten will break early, and allow the gases 
to escape during the process of fermentation. Dough 
having poor gluten is soft and sticky and easily broken. 
Flour having good gluten will give a tough, elastic, and 
well-risen dough. It will absorb and retain much water, 
thus making a greater number of loaves from the same 
quantity of flour. Gluten procured by washing such 
flour is tough and elastic. Good gluten is very necessary 
to good bread, and, as it is the muscle-forming element 
of the flour, it is also a very important food element. 

The mineral matter of wheat occurs principally in the 
bran ; consequently, like the fat, is mostly lost in the prep- 
aration of wheat for human consumption in the form of 
bread. The wheat is cleaned of straw, large weed seeds, 
and light particles of chaff and dirt, and in the large mills 
it is rubbed with brushes and tossed against sharp edges of 



WHEAT AND WHEAT FLOUR. 81 

iron until all the fuzzy ends and loose particles of hair 
and dirt are removed, and the kernels are bright and 
free from all foreign substances. The wheat is then passed 
between rough corrugated rollers, which are just far 
enough apart to break the kernel, open on the crease side 
and flatten it out. The flakes of wheat are now passed 
over' a fine sieve, and any small floury particles are sifted 
out, and are called "middlings." The flakes, sometimes 
called "first break scalp," are now run through another 
set of rolls, or breaks, and are crushed thinner, and, on 
passing through another sieve, give up some more fine 
flour from the starch cells in the center of the kernels. 
This floury portion or middlings is mixed with that taken 
out after passing through the first break. Thus the 
flakes called "break scalp" pass through half a dozen sets 
of rolls, some flour being sifted out each time, and in the 
end the flakes have been crushed and rubbed until the 
floury part of the kernel is all removed, and only the flakes 
of bran remain. Though the middlings which came out 
after the first break came from the middle of the kernels, 
and were more nearly pure starch, while that which came 
out last was rubbed off the inner surface of the bran, and 
contained more protein or glutenous compounds, all this 
is usually mixed together. Strange as it may seem, 
these middlings, which are already nearly fine flour, are 
again run between fine rollers, and are sometimes finally 
ground between burrs. The middlings are separated into 
two or three portions. 

The miller tries to obtain a large percentage of the 
finer flour which he calls "patent," and a small proportion 
of bakers' and red dog flour since these bring a less price. 

Straight-grade flour comprises the whole of the mar- 
ketable flour produced from the wheat, without assortment 
into the grades just mentioned. 

The per cent, of moisture in straight-grade flour is al- 
most identical with that of wheat. The per cent, of 



82 HOUSEHOLD SCIENCE. 

gluten is proportionately greater than in wheat, the bran 
and shorts having been removed. The per cent, of ash 
and phosphoric acid is considerably lower for the same 
reason. Fat and cellulose are likewise lower in percent- 
age.* 

Red dog is the lowest grade of flour. It is rich in pro- 
tein and fat, as it contains much of the wheat germ, and is 
valuable to stockmen, but has little value in bread-mak- 
ing, because good gluten is lacking. 

Wheat can be very completely freed from the germ 
by the roller process. The germs are sifted out during 
the process of manufacturing the flour. The germ forms 
three by-products, known as first, second, and third germ. 
They are mixed with branny and starchy products of 
the wheat, the second being the purest. Wheat germ is 
utilized in the manufacture of breakfast foods. The 
poorer grades of flour are utilized by stockmen. 

The palatability of wheat is well illustrated in our lik- 
ing for bread, though it is not always so palatable a prod- 
uct as the flour is capable of producing. One reason 
for its palatability lies in the fact that its gluten is su- 
perior to that found in any other grain. It is capable, 
in skillful hands, of forming a delicate and porous loaf. 
Cereals manufactured from wheat and other grains are 
very numerous, and should be vised more largely than 
they are. 

The tables show that they possess a high food value. 
Much truth is put into the mouth of the fabled medicine 
man of Egypt, when he is made to say: "My soul in 
this world is dependent upon my body, my body on my 
stomach, and my stomach on my cook." Nowhere, it 
seems, has the cook more power over the soul in 
this way than in the handling of flour and cereal foods. 
Properly prepared and cooked, they are highly palatable, 
and very completely digested and assimilated. But if 

*Jago — Page 306. 



WHEAT AND WHEAT FLOUR. 83 

poorly or partially cooked, their high food value is largely 
lost. Cereals are certainly very excellent food, though 
fancy names add nothing to their food value, and in some 
cases their price is very much higher than their food 
value and their palatability warrant. 

Adulterants in Wheat Flour as Commonly Used. 

Rice meal, rye flour, potato starch, cornstarch, meal 
from leguminous plants, as peas or beans, and corn flour ; 
also the following mineral bodies are sometimes used 
as adulterants : Alum, borax, chalk, carbonate of magne- 
sia, and bone ash. 

The tests for these must be mostly made by the chem- 
ist and microscopist, as the adulterations are fine, like 
flour. 



CHAPTER VIII. 

YEASTS. 

Fermentation. 

*" 'Fermentation' may be defined as a generic term ap- 
plied to that group of chemical changes which are conse- 
quent on and inseparable from the life and development 
of certain microscopic organisms." 

There are many kinds of fermentation, a few of which 
are enumerated : Alcoholic fermentation is used in bread 
making. Its products are alcohol and carbon dioxide. 
Viscous or ropy fermentation produces a ropy condition, 
and is probably the cause of the ropy bread sometimes 
seen. A familiar example of lactic fermentation is seen 
in the souring of milk. Its most important product in 
that case is lactic acid. Acetous fermentation is seen 
in the change of fruit juice into vinegar; the sugar 
of the liquid being changed so that acetic acid is formed. 
In putrefactive fermentation, offensive products are 
formed. The bread maker is especially interested in al- 
coholic fermentation and the things which accelerate, re- 
tard, or injure its action in giving best results. 

Yeast is regarded as a microscopic plant. It is gen- 
erally believed that, in order that yeast be most healthy, 
it must have access to light and air, in order that it have 
the requisite amount of oxygen. 

A noted English authority on bread making has made 
experiments to prove this theory. He says : *"The ex- 
periments prove very clearly that the agitation has re- 
sulted in the yeast being in every instance more vigorous 
in action. In case of the spontaneous ferment, there was 
*Jag-o. 



YEASTS. 85 

a distinct, though slow, evolution of gas. The sample 
pitched with pressed yeast had more than twice the ca- 
pacity for causing the evolution of gas than had those 
which were pitched with brewer's yeast. It is plain that 
agitation in some way increases the vigor of yeast." It 
is found that yeast grows better, also, when a large sur- 
face is exposed to the air. 

Influence of Temperature on Fermentation. 

Yeast grows most rapidly between the temperatures of 
25 degrees C. to 35 degrees C, which equals 77 degrees 
F. to 95 degrees F. Yeast ceases to grow at a little less 
than 50 degrees F., but is not always killed even by 
freezing. Freezing, however, is apt to injure it. Al- 
though yeast grows rapidly at 95 degrees F. (a tempera- 
ture at which the liquid merely feels warm to the hand, 
as the human temperature is about 90 degrees F.), the 
temperature employed in English breweries is said to be 
from 65 degrees F. to 72 degrees F. 

Let us ascertain why the brewer does not hasten the 
process of fermentation. From numerous recent re- 
searches, there is evidence of a number of organisms 
which possess the power of producing lactic acid by the 
conversion of glucose. One or more of these is always 
present in commercial yeasts. Lactic fermentation pro- 
ceeds most favorably at a temperature of about 35 de- 
grees C. and is retarded and practically arrested at a 
temperature which still permits the growth and develop- 
ment of the yeast organism. The other bacterial and al- 
lied ferments are also affected in a similar manner by 
temperature. Hence 75 degrees F. to 77 degrees F., 
which allows the yeast to grow well, but retards the 
growth of foreign ferments, is far better than a higher 
temperature. 



86 HOUSEHOLD SCIENCE. 

Strength of Yeast. 

The following experiment, made by Professor Jago, 
taken in connection with other recent experiments show- 
ing that foreign ferments in bread impair the food 
value, prove conclusively that it is far better to use 
plenty of good yeast, than a small amount, or poor 
yeast, or use no yeast, but simply a starter and de- 
pend upon spontaneous fermentation. In the experi- 
ment, sterilized vessels are used, and the same amount of 
wort placed in each. The vessels are loosely covered and 
the temperature is kept at 77 degrees F., — a temperature 
best adapted to allow the yeast to overcome the foreign 
ferments. One vessel of wort was left plain, that it 
might ferment spontaneously; to the second, fifteen 
grains of good brewer's yeast was added ; to the third, 
ten grains of compressed yeast was added. The two 
with yeast were aerated ; the other one was not. They 
were allowed to stand the same length of time, and on 
examination, the one to which no yeast was added was 
found to be swarming with bacteria, and no yeast cells 
were present. Those which were started with yeast had 
practically no foreign ferments. The conclusion drawn 
is that at that temperature yeast is vigorous and hardy, 
and overcomes the power of foreign ferments. Yeast 
always produces a sweeter and finer-flavored bread than 
other ferments do. Yeast which is made with hops is 
able to overcome the power of foreign ferments longer 
than that made without hops, because the bitter of the 
hops is not suited to bacterial growth, but since one can 
use but little of a yeast made with hops without injuring 
the flavor of the bread, and a weak yeast acts so slowly 
as to cause disastrous results, it is better to make yeast 
oftener without hops, and use plenty of it in bread mak- 
ing. There are a number of different kinds of yeast. 
Brewer's yeast, according to the best authority, is not 
the best yeast for bread-making purposes, because the 



YEASTS. 87 

brewer's business demands yeast, and he uses good yeast 
in his business, and the supply of best yeast is conse- 
quently limited. In a fermenting liquid, the middle yeast 
is considered stronger and more vigorous than that on 
either the top or bottom part of the fermenting liquid. 
Therefore it is wise for the breadmaker always to stir the 
yeast well before taking out a portion for breadmaking. 
In speaking of brewer's yeasts, Jago, in "Science and 
Art of Bread Making," says : "Too frequently that sold 
to bakers is the refuse yeast from either the beginning 
or the end of fermentation. Bakers who use brewer's 
yeast should insist on being supplied with that equal in 
quality to what the brewer himself uses in starting fer- 
mentation. To the baker, as regards yeast, above all 
things, the best is the cheapest. One spoiled batch of 
bread will cost the difference between good and bad 
yeast, over probably many weeks or months." 

What is true of poor yeast in the bakery is true of 
poor yeast in the home. There are yeasts known as "pat- 
ent yeasts." These are made by bakers for their own use. 
There is no reason why these yeasts should not be uni- 
versally good, provided the baker is skilled in the art 
of manufacturing yeast, and is willing to give it suffi- 
cient attention, and to use only the best materials in its 
manufacture. The author quoted before says : "In mak- 
ing patent yeasts, it is very poor economy to stint either 
malt or hops. A weak wort produces a much less healthy 
and vigorous yeast than does a strong one, besides being 
much more subject to disease fermentation and conse- 
quent acidity." The same rule will apply to making yeast, 
at home. The yeast must be made often and the vessels 
must be sterilized, and a strong and vigorous yeast used 
to start with, if one would obtain the best results and 
avoid a weak yeast, with many foreign ferments. 

There is another variety of patent yeast known as 
"flour barm." This is extensively used in Scotland. The 



88 HOUSEHOLD SCIENCE. 

chief peculiarity of bread from this is its decidedly acid 
taste, thought to be due principally to lactic acid. Much 
salt is used in making this bread, and it has not the flavor 
of what, in some other countries, is called the best bread. 

>;: "Yirgin barm differs from Parisian only in being self- 
fermented. Parisian barm was introduced from Paris to 
Scotland about thirty years ago. It is essentially a leaven- 
ing ferment, a scientific modification of the systems of 
ancient Egypt and modern France." 
Dry Yeast. 

The dry yeast cakes of commerce are simply yeast 
made by some one of the foregoing processes, and mixed 
with some cereal preparation, cut into cakes, and dried. 
Dry yeast, when it can be obtained fresh, will make a 
very good quality of bread. In making bread with this 
yeast, it is well to use potato water. In making yeast, 
it is necessary to have both carbohydrate and pro- 
teid matter. Such grains as corn, rye, and barley are 
used. A small amount of grain is best malted and then 
reduced to the proper fineness. It is then fermented to 
the proper stage, when the "starter" yeast is added, and 
it stands from ten to fourteen hours at a certain tem- 
perature. The other necessary grain is prepared and 
added at the proper time, and after a series of necessary 
manipulations, the yeast rises to the surface, is skimmed 
off, washed, properly prepared, and made into the cakes 
in which we see it. For a full description of the process 
of making compressed yeast, see "Science and Art of 
Bread Making," Jago. 

Good compressed yeast should not be waxy, but should 
break brittle. It should have a pleasant odor, and act 
quickly when added to a sponge. Compressed yeast, 
when fresh, is strong and vigorous, certain to produce 
good results under proper conditions and handling. The 
only objection to this yeast is that it is expensive, and 
does not keeep fresh long. While we pay what seems 
*Jago. 



YEASTS. 89 

like a large price for a small amount of yeast, we get 
more good lively yeast plants in one of those small cakes 
than in a much larger quantity of other yeasts. It is 
better to buy this to start with, when possible, for good 
wholesome bread can be made with home-made yeast if 
one has good yeast to start it with ; but after home- 
made yeast is used several times to start with, the yeast 
produced becomes too weak for the best results, and 
needs reinvigorating. Home-made yeast is best kept in 
a glass jar. Such a receptable can be washed and steril- 
ized each time fresh yeast is made, and this is absolutely 
necessary to insure the yeast against foreign ferments. 
Compressed yeast keeps best with the wrappers removed, 
and the yeast put into a glass jar and covered with cold 
water. The water should be changed the same as on 
cut flowers. The yeast must then be measured with a 
spoon when used. 

Methods of Rendering Lough Light without Yeast. 

Aerated bread is made light by a mechanical process. 
The liquid with which the flour is mixed into dough is 
charged with carbon dioxide. The manipulations are so 
performed as to prevent the gas escaping until the dough 
is made, when the imprisoned gas expands and renders the 
dough light at once. The flavor of such bread is not 
considered so fine as that of the best yeast-risen bread, 
and people usually tire of it in time. 

Baking powders render doughs light by means of car- 
bon dioxide gas. The gas is produced in the dough usual- 
ly by the action of some acid on sodium bicarbonate. This 
action is, in some powders, brought about by the presence 
of moisture alone, while in others heat is necessary to its 
action. In using the powders which act by the presence 
of moisture alone, one must work rapidly, that the dough 
may be placed in the oven and become set by the heat 
before the gas escapes, in order that the air cells may re- 
main distended. 



90 HOUSEHOLD SCIENCE. 

Baking- powders may be classed under three general 
heads, — tartrate powders, phosphate powders, and alum 
powders. Some baking powders contain two or more of 
the above acids in their composition. The tartrate pow- 
ders, as the name indicates, have tartaric acid for their 
acid portion. This may be simply tartaric acid, or it 
may be combined so as to require a different name. The 
two acids used in the tartrate powders are tartaric acid 
and cream of tartar. A tartaric acid powder requires 
that the dough be handled quickly and put into a hot oven, 
as the acid dissolves readily, and the action is soon over. 
In using a cream of tartar powder such great haste is not 
absolutely necessary, for cream of tartar dissolves slowly 
in cold water, but rapidly when heat is applied. The 
housekeeper can readily ascertain whether a powder dis- 
solves rapidly or slowly by placing a small amount in a 
glass, and testing with cold water and then with hot 
water. All baking powders contain some air-dried starch 
in addition to the acid and alkaline portions. The object 
of using the starch is to prevent the powder losing its 
power by the acid and alkaline portions acting on each 
other in the presence of absorbed atmospheric moisture. 
The baking powder can should always be kept closely 
covered, as moisture enters from the atmosphere. 

The phosphate baking powders contain some form of 
phosporic acid as the acid constituent. Doughs mixed 
with phosphate powders should be handled quickly, as the 
powder begins to act as soon as dissolved in water. 

Among the chemicals used as the acid portion in alum 
baking powders are potassium bisulphate (KHSO4) 
and alum. According to Jago, "the potassium and sodi- 
um sulphates produced when these substances are neu- 
tralized by sodium bicarbonate are powerful purgatives, 
and as such are absolutely unfitted for introduction into 
bread." 

It is evident that, for general use, yeast bread, when 



YEASTS. 91 

properly made and baked, is preferable to any of the 
above-named breads. It has a fine flavor, and produces 
no deleterious results. 

In every farm home the hot breads should usually be 
made with sour milk and soda. To be skillful in the use 
of soda requires good judgment and constant practice, but 
to many the products are more delicious than those in 




Utensils Used in Bread Making. 

which baking powder is used, and they are very whole- 
some. When eggs are used for rendering breads and 
cakes light, we depend on beating air into the eggs and 
dough, and keeping it there until, expanded by heat, it 
makes the dough light. 

If one wishes to make baking powder at home, it can 
be done by mixing cream of tartar and soda in the pro- 
portion of one teaspoonful of baking soda and two of 
cream of tartar. Sift two or three times, to be certain 
that it is thoroughly mixed, and use at once. To make a 
powder that can be kept, secure eight ounces of 
cream of tartar of good quality, four ounces of baking 
soda, and three ounces of cornstarch. Be sure that all 
the ingredients are perfectly dry. Sift the soda and 
starch (after stirring together in a perfectly dry bowl 
until mixed) three times, letting it fall onto a paper on 



92 HOUSEHOLD SCIENCE. 

the table, and placing a second paper under the sieve. 
Pour the mixture again into the sieve, and shake through. 
When these have been sifted three times, stir the cream 
of tartar into them, and sift in same manner as before. 
When done, put into a closely-covered tin can or Mason 
jar, and keep in a dry place, closely covered. Use a heap- 
ing teaspoonful to each cup of flour. 

References: Science & Art of Bread Making — Jago — pp. 
237, 238, 244, 252, 257, 346-365, 386-389. Also pages 360-365, 
395, 397, 398. 



CHAPTER IX. 



BREAD MAKING. 



In order that the same grade of flour may have always, 
as nearly as possible, the same strength and quality, some 
mills employ a person who makes into bread a certain 
weighed quantity of flour as often as is necessary to 
know the strength of the flour milled, and the proportions 
of glutenous and starchy wheats are varied as determined 
by the results. 

Flours made from different kinds of wheat vary greatly 
in strength. Strong flour will rise high in loaf, and will 
absorb a large amount of water. The baker will pay 
more for strong flour, because from a hundred pounds 
of strong flour he can make a larger number of loaves 
than from weak flour. With flour of medium strength, 
the housewife can make loaves with beautiful crust, crumb 
fine, soft, and not quickly dried out, aromatic, and of 
nutty flavor— such bread as will take the place of cakes 
and pies. Uniformity in strength is very much desired, 
so that the baker, having learned to make good loaves 
from a given sample of flour, can, with uniform treat- 
ment, always supply the family with choice loaves. 

Strength is given a flour by the gluten, which forms 
about one-seventh of the weight of the flour. Gluten is 
made up of several nitrogenous compounds, mainly gha- 
din and glutenin. The proportion of these two sub- 
stances determines the strength of the gluten. Much 
gliadin and little glutenin makes a soft, sticky dough ; an 
excess of glutenin and a small amount of gliadin makes 
weak dough; while wheat which has six parts gliadin to 
four parts glutenin makes a strong flour, which will rise 
high, and will retain its ability to rise till worked down 



94 HOUSEHOLD SCIENCE. 

two or more times. In bread making, dough should rise 
only once before moulding into loaves. (See Minnesota 
Bulletin No. 54.) 

The food value of flour does not always correspond to 
its strength. The percentage of gluten has very much 
to do with its food value, since the flesh-forming gluten 
has more value per pound than the heat-forming starch, 
sugar, and cellulose. Flours vary from seven to eighteen 
per cent, of gluten. The standard flours from the north- 
ern mills have from twelve to fifteen per cent, of gluten. 

The price of the best flour is often twice that of the 
lowest grades, because it is easier manipulated, makes a 
whiter loaf, with softer crumb, and a more palatable 
and more healthful bread. Such flours do not always 
contain food substances of greater value. In fact, the 
stockman might properly choose some of the low-grade 
flours for his animals, in preference to the best patent. 
The modern roller mills make several different grades of 
flours, as patent, bakers', and low-grade flour. The 
prices at wholesale are relatively as follows : Best Pat- 
ent, $3.70 per bbl. ; Straight, $3.50 per bbl. ; First Bakers' 
Patent, $3.45 per bbl. ; Second Bakers' Patent, $3.30 per 
bbl.; Low Grade (Red Dog) $17.00 per ton. 

The chemical composition of these flours is shown 
in the following tables : 



COMPOSITION 


OF GRADES OF FLOUR. 






Dry Matter 
percent 


Ash 
pereent 


Fat 
percent 


Protein 
percent 


Carbohydrates 
per cent 


Patent Flour 

Bakers' Flour 


S7.64 
91.96 


.51 1.62 
.75 1 2.22 


12.44 
15.50 


73.07 
73.52 



See Jordan and Hall's Bulletin on Digestibility of Food Stuffs. 

Red dog flour, on account of the poor quality of bread 
which it produces, is used mostly for stock feeding. The 
following is its composition, as given by Henry, in "Feeds 
and Feeding :" 



Digestible Nutrients in Fertilizing Constituents 



Dry 
Matter 
in 100 



100 pounds. 



in 1000 pounds. 



Pro I Carbo- 



Ether I Nitro- I Phosphor- 1 Pot- 



pounds J ^ e j n I hydrates extract] gen. | ic acid. | ash 



RedDogFlour | 90.3 | 13.5 | 61.3 | 2.0 | 31.8 | 21.4 | 10.9 



BREAD MAKING. 95 

In red dog flour are portions of the germ of the wheat, 
which, though made up of rich muscle-forming foods and 
of oils, are of such a mechanical nature as not to aid in 
making the loaf light. 

The action of yeast in the dough is to produce gas by 
breaking up the starch and other compounds of the flour. 
This gas tries to escape by expanding, and in doing so 
enlarges within the minute interstices of the dough. 
As the gas accumulates, these interstices become larger, 
and the walls of gluten with entangled particles of starch 
are stretched out into thin plates. If the glutenous mem- 
brane is made up of the right proportions of glutenin and 
gliadin, without too much other proteids, it is tough, and 
may be stretched to a large size in thin sheets, just as a 
child at play may make very large bubbles if his mix- 
ture of soap and water is pure and properly combined. 

When heat is applied in baking bread, the gluten is 
coagulated or hardened, just as an egg is hardened by 
heating, so that the thin plates separating the interstices 
lose their power of contracting, or of being further 
stretched. The desire is to have the bread light, yet with 
comparatively small interstices or pores in the crumb, 
preferably none larger than a kernel of wheat. To se- 
cure a fine crumb, the reworking of the dough, the time 
to place the loaf in the oven, and the heat of the oven 
must be so managed as to have the gluten hardened 
when the loaf is properly raised. Experience with a 
given brand of flour will enable the baker to determine 
the number of times to work the dough down, and the 
amount of kneading to give it ; also the size to allow the 
loaves to rise the last time, so as to give the desired 
texture of crumb. If the oven is quite hot when the 
loaves are put in, a crust of coagulated gluten is soon 
formed, which will hold up the interior of the loaf, pre- 
venting the crumb from contracting into a sodden mass, 
as sometimes- occurs when the oven is not hot, and the 
loaf is heated up too slowly. 



HOUSEHOLD SCIENCE. 

Patent and other superior kinds of flour sell higher 
than the poorer grades, because their gluten, even though 
it be less in quantity, will stand up till baked into beauti- 
ful palatable loaves, and the crumb may be eaten with- 
out doughing up in the mouth. Fine white bread is at 
once cake and the staff of life. No other cake compares 
with it as a source of every-day enjoyment, and no other 
bread will take its place where civilization has introduced 
it. White bread is the most important dish of civiliza- 
tion. The woman who presents her family with perfect 
bread at every meal, and, with it, good butter and cold 
water or milk, has a basis upon which to feed any mem- 
ber of her family and every guest, whether well, sick, or 
notional. Good white bread and water are the two uni- 
versal foods ; no one tires of them. 

A pound loaf of bread can be made from about three- 
quarters of a pound of flour, about twenty-five per cent, 
of water being added to the flour during the process of 
bread making. With some flours, five to ten per cent, 
more water can be absorbed, making a greater weight of 
bread product from a given weight of flour. This addi- 
tional weight is water, and not nutrients. At two cents 
per pound for flour, it is estimated that a pound loaf of 
bread can be made, not counting fuel and labor, for about 
two cents ; half a cent being allowed for shortening and 
yeast. 

Next to the quality of the flour, the things which are of 
paramount importance in bread making are the quantity 
and quality of the yeast, the temperature at which the 
dough is kept while rising, and the length of time which 
is allowed to elapse between the time of adding the yeast 
to the mixture and the baking of the bread. 

The discoveries in the new world — the world of little 
things — by Pasteur and others, have led to the preparation 
of yeast of superior quality. 

"About the year 1875, some practical experiments were 



BREAD MAKING. 97 

made in connection with the new process of brewing, and 
a yeast of irreproachable purity was cultivated and used. 
This yeast, which was repeatedly used during the sum- 
mer of that year, always produced a beer of remarkable 
keeping properties, while beer made at the same brewing 
from the same wort by the ordinary process did not re- 
main sound three weeks, though kept in the same cellar 
as the other." 

It is not possible for us to have strictly pure yeast for 
use in bread making, and it might not be best for this 
purpose if we had it, but we can have yeast sufficiently 
pure to produce a quality of bread which is in every sense 
wholesome, palatable, and possessed of good keeping 
qualities. When compressed yeast cannot be obtained 
fresh, it is better to use home-made yeast, which can al- 
ways be had fresh and vigorous. 

In order to insure good results in bread making, no 
longer time than five hours should be allowed to elapse 
between the time that the ferment is set, and that at which 
the bread is taken from the oven. The temperature 
should range from 75 degrees to 80 degrees F., as this 
degreee of heat is favorable to the action of the yeast, 
but less favorable to the development and multiplication 
of the ferments present, which in their action produce 
deleterious effects. These, left a longer time than four 
hours, will accomplish some of their destructive work. 
A good example of the evil effects produced by giving 
too much time to fermentation can be frequently seen on 
some tables. Take a roll or biscuit, and you find it a 
sample of fermented bread of very good quality, but 
choose a slice of a loaf made the same day, and it is in- 
ferior in appearance, taste, and nutritive qualities. In- 
vestigation will usually prove that the ferment for loaf 
and rolls was set at the same time, and the rolls were 
baked for tea, while the loaves set an hour longer before 
going into the oven. A single simple experiment is suffi- 



98 HOUSEHOLD SCIENCE. 

cient to prove that the temperature at which the dough is 
kept while rising has a great influence on the quality of 
the bread produced. Mix at as nearly the same time as 
possible three portions of dough, using plenty of good 
yeast, and having all conditions except temperature the 
same in the three cases. Let one portion be mixed with 
a warm liquid, and set in a warm place to rise, at 90 de- 
grees F., another mixed with a liquid at 65 degrees F., 
and a third at 75 degrees F., and allow to continue at 
those temperatures while rising, and, when baked, com- 
pare the loaves as to color, taste, and odor, and those who 
believe that much yeast yields the unpalatable product 
known as "yeasty bread" will notice that the loaf in which 
right conditions were followed gives off a pleasant odor, 
and has a fine flavor, though the same quantity of yeast 
was used as in the loaf which presents the unsightly ap- 
pearance, and has the disagreeable taste and smell pro- 
duced by too high or too low a temperature. 

Loss of Dry Matter in Bread Making. 
*"In bread making, the action of the yeast and heat 
results in (1) the fermentation of the carbohydrates, 
and the production of carbon dioxide and alcohol; (2) 
the production of soluble carbohydrates, as dextrin, from 
insoluble forms, as starch; (3) the production of lactic 
and other acids; (4) the formation of other volatile car- 
bon compounds; (5) a change in the solubility of the 
proteid compounds; (6) the formation of amid and am- 
monium compounds from soluble proteids; and (7) the 
partial oxidation of the fat. In addition to these changes 
there are undoubtedly many others which take place. 
Inasmuch as many of the compounds formed during the 
fermentation process are either gases or are volatile at 
the temperature of baking, appreciable losses of dry 
matter must necessarily take place in bread making. 
These losses are usually considered as amounting to 
about two per cent, of the flour used. In exceptional 
* Minnesota Bulletin No. 67. 



BREAD MAKING. 99 

cases, as in prolonged fermentation, under favorable con- 
ditions the losses may amount to eight per cent, or more. 

Loss of Carbon in the Form of Alcohol. 

"During the fermentation process in bread making, 
the production of carbon dioxide is accompanied by the 
production of alcohol. Theoretically, for every part of 
carbon dioxide gas formed there is also produced 1.04 
parts of alcohol. It is generally supposed that, during 
baking, the alcohol is entirely given off. The above theo- 
retical experiments, when 4 calculated on the basis of 
amounts of alcohol formed during bread making in the 
the carbon dioxide evolved, would be as follows, in the 
short- fermentation process: (1) 1.10 per cent, alcohol: 
(2) 1. 13 per cent, alcohol; (3) 1.04 per cent, alcohol. 
Similar values for the long-fermentation process would 
be: (5) 0.83 per cent, alcohol; (6) 0.94 per cent, al- 
cohol; (7) 1 per cent, alcohol; (8) 1.07 per cent, alco- 
hol; general average, 1.02. 

"On an average there is about 1 per cent, by weight 
of alcohol produced when bread is made. It serves a 
useful purpose. In baking, the alcohol is volatilized and 
the vapor aids the carbon dioxide in expanding the 
dough, thus making the bread more porous. 

"Samples of normal fresh bread were subjected to dis- 
tillation and to other tests, but the distillate did not con- 
tain enough alcohol to give an appreciable reaction. 

"In general it may be said that there is on an average 
about 1 per cent, of alcohol formed during bread mak- 
ing, and no appreciable amount of this alcohol is left in 
the bread. 

Production of Soluble Carbohydrates in Bread Making. 
"In wheat flour, the carbohydrates are present mainly 
in the form of insoluble starch. There are, however, a 
number of other insoluble carbohydrates and small 
amounts of soluble carbohydrates, chiefly in the form of 
dextrin, with a small amount of sucrose. 

LofC. 



100 HOUSEHOLD SCIENCE. 

"The soluble carbohydrates of wheat investigated by 
the Division of Chemistry were invert sugar, sucrose, 
and dextrin or galactin. 

"In addition to the soluble carbohydrates mentioned 
above, small amounts of raffinose have been reported by 
several investigators in wheat germs. Wheat germ con- 
tains more sucrose than any other of the wheat prod- 
ucts, and the amount of soluble carbohydrates in wheat 
flour depends largely upon the proportion of germ pres- 
ent. 

"A sample of flour (No. 2) used in the experiments at 
the Minnesota Station to determine the extent to which 
starch is changed to soluble forms in bread making con- 
tained 1.62 per cent, of soluble carbohydrates, calculated 
as dextrin. 

"In addition to' the production of alcohol and carbon 
dioxide gas by fermentation, the action of the yeast and 
heat results in the production of soluble carbohydrates 
from insoluble forms. During the baking process, the 
heat changes some starch to dextrin. In the process of 
bread making, this results in both the consumption and 
production of soluble carbohydrates. The extent to which 
insoluble starch is changed to soluble forms in bread mak- 
ing is a subject which does not appear to have been ex- 
tensively investigated. Koenig states that fine wheat 
bread contains 4.02 per cent, sugar and coarse bread 2.08 
per cent. The term 'sugar,' however, is not defined. 

"The extent to which soluble carbohydrates are either 
consumed or produced during bread making is an im- 
portant matter, because flour contains on an average 
sixty-five per cent, or more of starch, and any change 
.affecting the starch has a direct effect upon both the 
composition and value of the bread produced. In ol- 
der to determine the extent to which soluble carbohy- 
drates are produced, six experiments were made. In 
three experiments the bread was made by the short-fer- 



BREAD MAKING. 101 

mentation process, and in three other experiments by 
the long-fermentation process." 

The following from the same bulletin shows that there 
is a loss of food value as well : 

"Under the conditions of these experiments, there was 
an average loss of 1.58 per cent, of total dry matter, 
and 1.45 per cent, of the total nitrogen. The difference 
betw r een the amount of nitrogen in the bread and that 
in the flour and yeast is so small that it might well be 
questioned whether this loss is not within the limits of er- 
ror of ordinary chemical work." 

While the amount of nitrogen lost when bread is 
properly made is small, the amount lost when bread is 
not properly made may materially exceed the figures 
given in the experiments to which reference has just been 
made. 

Using- a yeast of questionable quality, the bread maker 
has no assurance that she will have a perfect loaf, though 
the best of flour may be used, and the greatest atten- 
tion given to all necessary conditions. 

Any yeast which answers the required conditions will 
bring satisfactory results. We have no good means by 
which to know, on looking at a cake of dry yeast or a 
cup of liquid yeast, whether there is a sufficient num- 
ber of germs in such a state of activity as to enable 
it to make the dough light in so short a time that the 
other ferments, which are always present in commercial 
yeast, will not be able to produce a deleterious effect 
upon the elements of the flour. Therefore it is wise to 
test the yeast with a small amount of sponge first. 

Besides the yeast, one needs only a little salt, a known 
quantity of liquid, and sufficient flour to make a dough 
of the proper consistency, in order to be able to make 
bread of the best quality. The liquid may be water, or 
milk and water, or milk alone, but the milk must be 
always positively sweet, and it is safer in summer to 



102 HOUSEHOLD SCIENCE. 

scald and cool before using - . Bread made with water is 
tougher than that made with milk. French bread is 
mixed with water alone. Vienna bread with milk and wa- 
ter, and there are several varieties in which milk is the 
only liquid used. 

There is no good reason for putting butter or fat of 
any kind into bread, but there is an excellent reason for 
leaving it out, as it retards the action of the yeast. Sugar 
is not needed, since flour furnishes all that is necessary 
for the growth and multiplication of the yeast. The ad- 
dition of any or all superfluous things will cause unneces- 
sary labor, and be found worse than useless. 

The amount of flour which it is necessary to mix with 
a certain amount of liquid to make dough of the proper 
consistency cannot be given by either weight or measure, 
without knowing the special brand of flour to be used, 
as the quantity varies according to the quality, because 
flours differ so greatly in their ability to absorb and 
retain liquids. There is, however, an unerring rule for 
determining the amount of liquid necessary in using any 
given flour. When a sufficient amount of flour has been 
added to the liquid measured out, the dough will be of 
such consistency that it can be handled without flour, 
and will not adhere to the hands or to the moulding 
board. 

Of patent flour, one quart of liquid will require from 
three pounds and ten ounces to five pounds, or from three 
and one-half quarts to five quarts, of flour, and the 
amount of dough formed from these proportions of liquid 
and flour will make four medium-sized loaves, or about 
five pounds of good bread. 

Stirred bread, or bread in which the manipulations are 
performed wholly with a spoon, stirring and cutting the 
ingredients together, and shaping the loaf with a 
knife, does not yield the best results. Nearly all the 



BREAD MAKING. 103 

work may be done with utensils, using the hands in con- 
taet with the dough very little, and good bread produced. 

A loaf of bread, when properly baked, is cooked en- 
tirely through, and has a crust of a chestnut-brown color 
all over the top, bottom, sides, and ends. In order to 
accomplish this, the loaf must be small enough so that 
the center can be cooked without rendering the crust 
too thick or too brown. 

The pan which will best serve this purpose measures 
four inches across the bottom, is three and one-half 
inches in height, and is as long as the oven will admit. 
Russia iron is the best material for pans. Sheet-iron 
will give equally good results in baking, but it is dif- 
ficult to keep in order, as it rusts easily. Tin does not 
give satisfactory results. 

Bread which is not sufficiently baked deteriorates rap- 
idly, and will, in a few days, become unpalatable, if not 
unfit for use ; while bread which is perfectly baked will 
keep in a good condition a much longer time, simply be- 
coming dry and hard, while that which is imperfectly 
baked becomes moldy, ropy, and may have a bad odor, 
because the spores of mold and the bacteria have not 
been killed. 

The temperature of the oven at the time the bread is 
put into it should be about 375° F., with an increasing 
heat during the first few minutes. At this temperature, 
rolls will bake in twenty-five or thirty minutes. A loaf 
of the size and shape described above, in fifty to sixty 
minutes. A loaf of bread sufficiently baked will emit a 
hollow sound when tapped on the bottom. As soon as 
the loaf comes from the oven, it should be removed from 
the pan and brushed lightly all over with milk or fat, and 
placed uncovered in such a position as will expose most of 
the surface to the fresh air. It should not be allowed to 
come in contact with anything which may impart to it 
an unpleasant odor. When cold it should be placed in 



104 HOUSEHOLD SCIENCE. 

a tin box or similar receptacle, covered, and kept in a 
cool, dry place. It is not well to wrap bread in cloths, 
as it has better flavor when simply kept in a clean vessel. 
The best utensils for bread making' are an earthen 
bowl, a wooden spoon, and a medium-sized moulding 
board, with cleats to prevent moving on the table. A 
wooden spoon is more noiseless and more easily handled 
than one of metal. The earthen bowl is easily kept clean 
and in good condition. It is easy to keep the dough at an 
even temperature, while rising, in such a bowl. 

Many people are seriously disturbed for hours by eat- 
ing sour bread in which a long time between first set- 
ting the dough and baking has allowed acetic and other 
undesirable ferments to act in producing acids and other 
deleterious substances in the bread. Whole families are 
made dyspeptic by poor bread making. But the lack of 
good flavor, and the presence of acids which disturb 
digestion are far greater injuries than the mere loss of 
food nutrients. 

Experiments have proven that yeast formed in con- 
tact with air having the maximum of free oxygen that 
it can assimilate is fresher and is possessed of greater 
vital activity than that which has been formed with an 
insufficiency of air. In manufactories of yeast, this fact 
is taken advantage of. The saccharine worts, after the » 
addition of yeast, are left to themselves in shallow vats 
of large superficial area, that the air may act upon 
them. Under such conditions, the yeast develops and 
multiplies rapidly. The white froth which soon covers 
the surface of the fermenting liquid is skimmed off into 
vats of cold water, allowed to settle to the bottom, the 
water pumped off, the contents of the vat drained, and 
by a series of manipulations it is reduced to masses of 
the size and form known in the market as "compressed 
yeast."' The yeast is in a state of vigorous growth ac- 
quired under the influence of free oxygen, since all the 



BREAD MAKING. 105 

manipulations are made in contact with air, and the mass 
is impregnated more or less with oxygen. The yeast 
immediately seizes upon this gas, and acquires a state 
of freshness and activity which renders it valuable as a 
ferment. 

The fact that compressed yeast is expensive and spoils 
readily is sometimes made an objection to its use. If 
kept where very cold, it will keep in good condition a 
week or more (if fresh when procured), and when prop- 
erly manipulated it never fails to made good bread with 
a comparatively small amount of labor, with no worry, 
and no loss of material. 

This yeast keeps better when removed from the tinfoil 
wrapper, put in a glass jar, and covered with cold water. 
The water should be poured off each day, and fresh 
water put on. Dry yeast cakes may be kept longer than 
compressed yeast, but in time they also lose their vi- 
tality. 

Many people pay a high price for coarse flours, be- 
lieving that they obtain more protein and mineral matter 
in these than in the finer flours. Late scientific inves- 
tigations lead to the belief that not all so-called whole- 
wheat flour is genuine. 

"The bread made from the imitation whole-wheat 
flours contained less protein than bread made from the pat- 
ent and bakers' grades of flour, while the bread made 
from true whole-wheat flours — that is, flours from which 
none of the germ or other parts of the wheat had been re- 
moved — contained about one per cent, more protein than 
bread made from ordinary flour. No conclusions, how- 

*U. S. Dept. Agr., Office Exp. Stations, Bulletin No. 67. 

NOTE— For further information on bread and bread making 
see (1)U. S. Dept. Agr., Office Exp. Stations, Bulletin No. 67; 
(2) U. S. Dept. Agr., Farmers' Bulletin No. 112; (3) Universi- 
ty of Minnesota, Agr. Exp. Station, Chemical Division, Bulle- 
tin No. 54; (4) The Science & Art of Bread Making— Jago; 
(5) U. S. Dept. Agr., Office Exp. Stations. Bulletin No. 34. 



706 HOUSEHOLD SCIENCE. 

ever, as to the relative nutritive value of whole wheat 
and ordinary flours can be drawn from the figures given. 
The rye bread contained slightly less protein than ordi- 
nary wheat bread, while the corn bread contained less 
than the rye." 
Potato Yeast. 

Take six large potatoes, pare, slice, and boil in one 
quart of water. Soak three dry yeast cakes in one 
cup of water. When the potatoes are done, mash through 
a colander, and then add the water (one quart), one and 
one-half tablespoonfuls of salt, and two and one-half ta- 
blespoonfuls of sugar. When cool, add the dissolved 
yeast cakes, set away in a temperature of about 75° F., 
and let stand twelve hours, when it is ready for use. The 
water used should be that in which the potatoes were 
cooked, with enough added to make a quart. 
Home-Made Yeast. 

Stir one-half pint of flour to a smooth batter with one- 
half pint of cold water. Over this pour one quart of 
boiling water, pouring slowly and stirring rapidly. Place 
over the fire, and cook four or five minutes. Add two 
level tablespoonfuls of sugar and one of salt. When 
cooled to 75 F., add one ounce of compressed yeast, or 
one pint of home-made yeast. Keep as nearly 75° F. as 
possible for twenty-four hours, stirring down once in four 
or five hours. Keep in a glass jar in a cool place. The 
jar must be thoroughly washed and scalded before put- 
ting fresh yeast into it. 

Bread with Home-Made Yeast. 

Quick Process. — One cup of good home-made yeast, 
one cup of milk and water (one-half cup of each) and 
two level teaspoonfuls of salt. Have the temperature of 
liquid and flour 75 ° F. and make into a dough stiff 
enough to handle without flour, let rise three hours, or 
until double in size, keeping always at 75 ° F., and when 
risen, mould into loaves, let rise one hour and bake. 



BREAD MAKING. 



107 



Bake a small loaf forty-five minutes, or a larger one 
one hour. 

Compressed Yeast Bread No. 1. 

To make bread with compressed yeast, break a one- 
half ounce cake of compressed yeast into small pieces 
in a cup, and cover with cold water. Place in a bowl 
one pint of liquid, — one-half milk and one-half water. 
Make the temperature of the mixture 75° F. Into this 
liquid put two level teaspoonfuls of salt, stir in a cup 
of sifted flour ; stir the yeast and water in the cup, and 
pour into this ; put in another cup of flour, and beat it 



1 ^> 




! : ! '1 ' 


' i^Sl 




^^ • ^V^d^y^ 



Bread Pans, Roll Pans, Stick Pans. 



well. Continue to stir in flour, keeping sides of bowl 
clean, and kneading with the spoon until nearly stiff 
enough. Then bathe the hands, wipe them dry, flour 
the board, and knead the dough until it ceases to adhere 
to the hands or board when no flour is used. Grease the 
bowl with some nice-flavored fat and treat the top of 
dough after putting into the bowl in the same way. 
Cover the bowl with a white cloth, set on the kitchen table 
and allow the dough to rise. See that the air is not cooler 
or warmer than 75 ° F. Let the dough rise three hours, 
or until it is double its original size, knead well and mold 
into loaves, put in greased pans, grease over the top, let 



108 HOUSEHOLD SCIENCE. 

rise one hour, when it will again double its size if prop- 
erly manipulated, and bake. 

Compressed Yeast Bread No. 2. 

Put into an earthen bowl one pint of water luke-warm 
in winter, but cold in summer, and stir in flour until a 
batter is formed, then stir in one one-half ounce cake of 
compressed yeast and two level teaspoonfuls of salt. See 
that the mixture is at 75 ° F., and let stand at that tempera- 
ture for two hours ; then stir in one pint of sweet milk, 
keeping temperature at 75 ° F., and finish exactly as in 
compressed yeast bread No. 1. This formula makes four 
loaves of bread. 

Liquid Yeast Bread. 

Put into an earthen bowl one medium-sized, well- 
boiled, finely-mashed potato, and pour over it, stirring 
meanwhile, one pint of liquid, consisting of the water in 
which the potato was boiled, plus enough boiling water 
to make a pint. Into this stir one cup of flour, let stand 
until it cools to 75 ° F., then add one cup of liquid yeast, 
stir well, cover, and let stand for six hours, or until 
light. Then put into it one pint of milk, and flour enough 
to make a stiff dough, and finish as above. 
Bread with Potato Yeast. 

To one quart of liquid, one-half milk and one-half wa- 
ter, use one cup of yeast. Put in flour enough to make 
a medium stiff batter. Add to the liquid four level tea- 
spoonfuls of salt, beat the batter until it seems light, add 
the yeast, and beat well again. The temperature should 
be the same as for other bread. Set the sponge out of 
a draft in a temperature of 75 ° F. In three hours it 
should be light and ready to mix up stiff. Let rise again 
until light, and make into loaves. Let rise another hour, 
and bake. 

Or, it may be made by using equal quantities of yeast 
and liquid, then proceed as with compressed yeast bread 
No. 1. 



BREAD MAKING. 109 

Rye Bread. 

To make rye bread, use one-half rye and one-half 
white flour, and proceed as for white bread, except add 
one teaspoonful of sugar for every pint of liquid used. 

Salt Rising Bread. 

Pour one cup of boiling' milk over two level teaspoon- 
fuls of salt and one-half cup of granulated cornmeal 
(either white or yellow meal). Set in a warm place over 
night. In the morning add one cup of hike- warm water. 
Stir with a wooden spoon, and add flour until very stiff. 
Wash the hands, turn the dough onto the floured mould- 
ing board, and knead in flour until the dough does not 
adhere to either the hands or the board. Place in a 
greased bowl, brush the top of the loaf with butter, 
cover with a clean white cloth, and set in a warm place, 
Let rise until light (that is, has doubled in size), knead 
into loaves, let rise again, and bake same as compressed 
yeast bread. 

Graham Bread with Compressed Yeast. 

Make same as white bread, except use one-half white 
flour and one-half graham flour. To one pint of liquid 
use one tablespoonful of sugar. 

In making either graham or whole-wheat bread, it is 
better to use at least one-third as much white flour as 
dark. 

Whole Wheat Bread. 

Make the same as white bread, except use whole wheat 
flour and one tablespoonful of sugar to one pint of liquid. 
In making whole wheat or graham bread, make the 
dough a little less stiff than white bread dough. Whole 
wheat and graham require longer baking than white 
bread, if the loaves are the same size. The loaves may be 
made smaller and baked in the same length of time. 

Federal Bread (For Breakfast or Tea). 

Use one pint of milk, one cake of compressed yeast, 



110 HOUSEHOLD SCIENCE. 

two eggs, and one generous teaspoonful of salt. Mix 
same as bread, except soft as it can possibly be handled, 
having first poured the hot milk over the well-beaten 
eggs, and allowed them to cool. When it has risen about 
four hours, mix in two generous tablespoonfuls of but- 
ter, form into loaves, let rise, and bake. While still hot, 
cut into three parts lengthwise, butter generously, re- 
place in sections, and serve. 

Buns. 

Beat together three eggs until well broken and mixed. 
Then pour over them, stirring constantly and pouring 
slowly, one pint of sweet milk, boiling hot, add three 
tablespoonfuls of granulated sugar, let cool, stir in some 
flour, then, if cooled to 75 ° F., add one cake of com- 
pressed yeast, mixed with a little water, and one level 
teaspoonful of salt. Now stir in flour enough to make 
a dough stiff enough that it may be kneaded, with 
care, put into a buttered bowl, and let rise three hours. 
The temperature should be 75° F. After rising three 
hours, work in one-half cup of butter, knead, and set 
to rise for two or three hours, or until light. Then make 
into buns, let rise one hour, and bake. 

Parker House Rolls. 

Heat one pint of sweet milk to 75 ° F., then stir in 
one tablespoonful of sugar and one level teaspoonful of 
salt and a little flour; add one cake of compressed 
yeast mixed with a little cold water, knead in flour until 
of the consistency of bread dough, have the temperature 
75 F., and let rise three hours, when it should be doubled 
in size. Then put in one tablespoonful of butter, mix 
well, let rise again ; when light, roll on the board until one- 
half inch thick, then lift from the board and let shrink 
back all it will, and cut with a round or oval cutter. 
Press the thumb across the middle, and fold over like a 
turnover, having first brushed the edges with butter. Let 
rise one hour, and bake. 



BREAD MAKING. ill 

Loaf Cake. 

For two cakes, take from the bread dough, when per- 
fectly light and ready for the last moulding, three cups of 
dough, to which add two cups of white sugar, one cup 
of butter, two well-beaten eggs, one cup of chopped rai- 
sins, one teaspoonful of cinnamon, and a half teaspoonful 
of soda. Place the dough with other ingredients in an 
earthen bowl, and work with the hands until it becomes 
quite soft, then place in a well-buttered baking dish lined 
with white paper. Bake one and one-half hours in a slow 
oven. 

Coffee Cake. 

Take some bun dough and roll until about one inch 
thick, spread with butter, sprinkle bountifully with su- 
gar and powdered cinnamon, let rise two and one-half 
hours, then bake in an oven a little cooler than for bread, 
and, when nearly done, dot with cooked fruit or jelly, 
or dust generously with sugar and powdered cinnamon, 
and dot with butter. 

Bun Cake. 

Use bun dough as on page no, and when it nas 
risen the second time roll about half an inch thick. 
Spread one-half thinly with melted butter, and sprinkle 
lightly with English currants and raisins chopped and 
seeded. Fold over, let rise and bake same as coffee cake. 

THIN DOUGHS. 

When a soapstone griddle is used, it needs no greas- 
ing. To grease other griddles, cut a piece of very fat salt 
pork about an inch and a half square, and leave the rind 
on it. Fix this firmly on a fork, provide yourself with 
a limber knife, and place a pie tin where these can 
be conveniently placed on it. Have a holder suitable 
for moving the griddle about on the range, and a clean 
cloth for wiping the griddle. The griddle must be freed 
from all bits each time it is used, and wiped to remove 



112 HOUSEHOLD SCIENCE. 

crumbs. Do not use the dish cloth for this. When 
greasing the griddle, be careful to grease only the por- 
tion on which the cake will lie because more space than 
this cannot be used, and the fat will burn on the griddle, 
filling the room with unnecessary smoke. When cakes 
are mixed with water, add a little sugar, as this will aid 
in making a nice brown. When cakes are ready to turn on 
the griddle, the upper surface will be full of small bub- 
bles, and the under surface a beautiful brown. Large 
bubbles should not rise at once to the surface of the 
griddle cake, as this indicates too hot a griddle, and the 
cakes will be inferior in flavor and appearance. 

Soda and Baking Powder — How to Use. 

Most quick breads are made light with either baking 
powder or sour milk and soda, but eggs are sometimes 
used for this purpose. Both soda and baking powder effer- 
vesce when a liquid is added. It is wise, therefore, to 
mix either soda or baking powder well with a small amount 
of the flour to be used. By so doing one may save as much 
as possible of the power which the soda or baking powder 
has to make the dough light, because, being mixed with 
the flour when the liquid comes in contact with it, 
the bubbles formed are imprisoned in the dough, in- 
stead of escaping into the air. The heat of the griddle 
or oven has much to do with the lightness of the finished 
product. If the heat is too great, the air or gas bubbles 
expand rapidly, and the walls break, making large holes, 
instead of a fine-grained bread or cake. Too hot an 
oven will cause great and rapid expansion, but the crust 
formed over the top is too heavy for the weak cell walls 
below to hold up, and the article falls, as is often seen 
in sponge cakes and omelets. If the oven is just the right 
heat, the cell walls and crust over the top will harden 
just when the cells are expanded to their limit, and the 
result is a light featherv mass, which remains so when 
cold. Too cool an oven will give disastrous results, 



BREAD MAKING. 113 

because the cell walls do not harden soon enough to pre- 
vent breaking, but too much heat is more frequently 
used than too little. The greatest heat should be at the 
bottom until the article is fully risen, but sides and top 
should be thoroughly browned when done. 

In using soda, use one-half a level teaspoonful to one 
cup of pleasantly acid milk. 

In using- baking powder, use one level teaspoonful to 
one level cupful of flour, for most doughs ; but for bis- 
cuits, dumplings and griddle cakes, use one and one-fourth 
teaspoonfuls to one cup of flour. 

Popovers — For Home Work. 

One-half teaspoonful of salt, one cup flour, one cup 
sweet milk, one egg, or one-fourth cup of egg white. 
Put half the milk into a small bowl, and add the egg 
and salt. Stir in flour until about right consistency for 
griddle cakes, then beat about ten minutes with dover 
beater, add the remainder of the milk, and having filled 
the muffin tins half full of the mixture, bake in an oven, 
same heat as for bread, forty-five minutes. 

Popovers — For Class Work. 

One-half cup of milk, one-half cup of flour, two table- 
spoonfuls of egg. Beat a whole egg just enough to mix 
so that a tablespoonful can be taken up. Put into a 
teacup in which a dover beater will turn, two table- 
spoonfuls of egg. one-fourth cup of milk, all the flour, 
a bit of salt, and beat well with the dover beater. Stir 
in the remainder of the milk and bake as above. 

Waffles. 

One egg, well beaten, one and one-half cups of milk, 
flour enough to make a batter same consistency as for pan- 
cakes, one level teaspoonful of salt. Cook on waffle irons. 



114 HOUSEHOLD SCIENCE. 

French Pancakes. 

Three eggs, one cup of milk, half a cup of flour, half 
teaspoonful of salt, one teaspoonful of sugar, two tea- 
spoonfuls of olive oil. Beat the yolks of the eggs until 
thick and lemon colored. Mix the sugar and salt with 
the flour, and add the milk and flour alternately, same as 
in making cake, using twice as much milk as flour each 
time, and thoroughly incorporating the one hefore adding 
the next. Y\ hen these are in, stir the olive oil into the 
mixture, and fold the well-beaten egg whites in carefully. 




Waffle Iron. 

Bake same as griddle cakes, butter, dust with powdered 
sugar, roll up, and serve hot. Clarified butter may be 
used instead of olive oil. 

Wheat Griddle Cakes. 

Three-fourths cup of sweet milk (generous), one egg, 
separated, one tablespoonful of melted butter, one-fourth 
teaspoonful of salt, one level cup of bread flour. Of 
pastry flour use a little more. Put the yolk of egg, salt, 
and one-fourth cup of milk in the bowl, add one-fourth 
cup of flour, and stir until smooth, using egg beater if 



BREAD MAKING. 115 

necessary. Add a little milk, and when thoroughly mixed 
add a little flour, and thoroughly incorporate that, and 
so continue until the flour and milk are all used. Beat 
in the butter, then fold in the beaten whites. 

Griddle Cakes with Baking Powder. 

Three-fourths cup of sweet milk, one tablespoonful 
of melted butter, one-fourth teaspoonful of salt, one level 
cup of flour, and one generous teaspoonful of baking 
powder. Put together same as above, leaving the 
egg out altogether, and save out two tablespoonfuls of 
flour. Mix the baking powder with this, and stir in 
last, beating well. 

Griddle Cakes with Sour Milk. 

Three-fourths cup of sour milk, one tablespoonful of 
melted butter, one-fourth teaspoonful of salt, scant one- 
half teaspoonful soda, three-fourths level cup of bread 
flour. Mix soda with a little flour, and beat in after 
the flour is used. Otherwise put together in the same 
manner as the one with baking powder and sweet milk. 

Blueberry Griddle Cakes. 

Make same as white-flour griddle cakes, and add one- 
half cup of blueberries (fresh ). Before adding the blue- 
berries, roll them in flour. 

Whole Wheat or Graham Flour Griddle Cakes- 

Make same as the ones with white flour, except use 
one teaspoonful of sugar to each cup of flour. 

Graham Griddle Cakes -Class Work. 

One-fourth cup of flour (half white and half graham), 
one tablespoonful of well beaten egg, one-fourth cup of 
sour milk, one-eighth teaspoonful of soda, ( sifted with 
flour) and the same of salt, one-fourth teaspoonful of 
sugar, one-fourth teaspoonful of melted butter. Put flour 
and milk in alternately and beat well. 



116 HOUSEHOLD SCIENCE. 

Wheat and Graham Muffins with Sour Milk. 

One-half tablespoonful of butter, one and one-half 
cups of flour, one cup of sour milk, one-half teaspoonful 
soda, one-half teaspoonful salt. Take out two table- 
spoonfuls of the flour, put the butter and salt in the 
milk, add one-half the flour, and stir until smooth. 
Add the rest a little at a time, beating between. Lastly 
add the soda mixed in the two tablespoonfuls of flour 
saved out. Be sure that the soda is mixed, then beat 
it in very thoroughly. Have the oven hotter than for 
bread, and bake half an hour or more. 

Wheat and Graham Muffins with Sour Milk. Class Rule. 

One-fourth cup sour milk, one-eighth teaspoonful of 
soda, one-eighth teaspoonful of salt, one-eighth table- 
spoonful of butter, one-fourth cup and two tablespoon- 
fuls of flour. Make graham muffins the same except add 
one teaspoonful of sugar. 

Whole Wheat Muffins with Sour Milk. 

One and one-half cups of whole wheat flour, one level 
teaspoonful of sugar, two teaspoonfuls of butter, one-half 
teaspoonful of salt, one cup of milk just pleasantly acid, 
one-half teaspoonful of soda. Take out two tablespoon- 
fuls of the flour, and put the sugar, butter, one cup of 
flour, and the milk together, and beat thoroughly. Add 
the remainder of the flour, a little at a time, beating well. 
Lastly add the soda, well stirred in the flour, and beat it in. 
Bake same as above. 

Whole Wheat or Graham Muffins with Baking Powder. 

One cup of sweet milk, one and one-half cups of flour, 
one-half teaspoonful of salt, one level teaspoonful of 
sugar, one generous teaspoonful of baking powder, one 
tablespoonful of soft butter. Put the milk, sugar, salt, 
and butter together, add flour enough to make a smooth 
batter, and beat well. Put the baking powder in a 



BREAD MAKING. 117 

tablespoon fnl of flour and set aside, put in the rest of 
the flour a little at a time, as in cake, beating well be- 
tween, and lastly beat in the flour with baking- powder, 
and bake half an hour in an oven a little hotter than for 
bread. 

Hygienic Gems. 

One cup of sweet milk, one and one-half cups of flour 
(grabam or whole wheat), one level teaspoonful of 
salt, one level teaspoonful of sugar. Have the materials 
very cold. Mix and put at once into hissing hot iron 
gem pans, and bake in an oven hotter than for bread. 

Hygienic Muffins- 

One cup sweet milk, one and one-half cups of flour 
(graham or whole wheat), one teaspoonful of salt, one 
egg, separated. Put the milk, the egg yolk, and salt in 
a bowl, put in about one-half the flour, and stir it well, 
mix in the remainder, and fold in the beaten white. Bake 
in muffin pans in a moderate oven. 

Wheat Muffins with White Flour and Baking Powder. 

One and one-half cups flour, one cup sweet milk, one 
generous teaspoonful baking powder, one-half table- 
spoonful butter. Save out a little of the flour to mix with 
the baking powder, put the milk and butter into the mix- 
ing bowl, add one cup of the flour, and beat vigorously ; 
then add the rest a little at a time, beating between, as 
in making cake; lastly put in the flour with the baking 
powder, and beat until thoroughly mixed. Bake in an 
oven a little hotter than for bread. 

Rice Muffins. 

Make same as above, except add one cup of rice cooked, 
cooled, and broken into separate grains with a fork. 

Sally Lunns. 

Milk, one cup; salt, one-fourth teaspoonful; eggs, one; 
sugar, one and one-half tablespoonfuls ; butter, one-half 



118 HOUSEHOLD SCIENCE. 

tablespoonful ; flour, one pint ; baking powder, two gener- 
ous teaspoonfuls. Mix all together, putting the baking 
powder in a little flour. Lastly, turn onto the kneading 
board sprinkled with flour, and knead into shape. Bake 
in a loaf in an oven a little hotter than for bread. 

Whole Wheat Muffins Raised with Egg. 

One cup of sweet milk, one egg, one and one-half cups 
of flour (whole wheat), one tablespoonful of melted but- 
ter, one level teaspoon ful of sugar, one-half teaspoonful 
of salt. Put the sugar, salt, flour, butter, and milk to- 
gether, and beat thoroughly, then beat in with the spoon 
the yolk of the egg, which has been beaten in a small 
bowl with an egg beater until thick. Lastly fold in the 
beaten white, and bake in an oven same heat as for bread. 

Batters made of whole wheat and graham flours require 
more beating than those from white flour. 

Muffins with White Flour. 

One cup of sweet milk, one and one-half cups of bread 
flour, one tablespoonful of soft butter, one egg, one-half 
teaspoonful of salt. Beat the egg yolk light. Put the 
milk, salt, flour, and butter with it, and stir and beat to- 
gether. Lastly fold in the white, beaten stiff. Bake in 
about the same heat as for bread. 
Biscuits with Sour Milk. 

These are best shortened with sour cream, but if you 
have not that, use one cup of sour milk or buttermilk, 
and two cups of flour plus enough to roll the dough on 
the board. Two tablespoonfuls fat rubbed into the flour, 
one-half level teaspoonful of salt, one-half level teaspoon- 
ful of soda. Proceed as for baking powder biscuits (p. 
119). Sift soda with flour. 

Soda Biscuits — For Class Work. 

One-fourth cup of sour milk, one-eighth teaspoonful of 
soda mixed in two tablespoonfuls of flour, one-half tea- 
spoonful of fat rubbed into one enp of flour, one- 



BREAD MAKING. 119 

eighth teaspoonful of salt. Roll one-fourth inch thick, 
and bake fifteen or twenty minutes in an oven same tem- 
perature as for bread. 

Baking Powder Biscuits. 

Two cups flour (winter wheat more delicate), one cup 
milk, four level, or two generous, teaspoonfuls baking 
powder, one teaspoonful salt, two tablespoonfuls butter. 
Rub or put butter in the flour with a fork. Take out one- 
fourth of a cup of flour to mix with the baking powder. 
When the butter is in, mix the flour containing the baking 
powder with the rest, and mix milk and flour together 
with as little stirring as possible. Flour the board gener- 
ously and knead as little as will make smooth. Keep 
well floured, roll to one-half inch thick, brush off surplus 
flour, cut out, and bake in an oven hot as can be to bake 
them half an hour without burning. Much depends on 
handling little and baking right. They must be very 
soft, and stirred and kneaded as little as will put them 
into shape. Make meat-pie crust in the same way. 

Baking Powder Biscuit.— Class Work. 

One-fourth cup flour, one-fourth teaspoonful salt, one- 
fourth teaspoonful fat, one-fourth teaspoonful baking 
powder, generous, two tablespoonfuls of water or milk. 

BAKING IN DIFFERENT OVENS. 

In order to be successful in baking, one must study 
the oven and know all its peculiarities. If it is hotter on 
the side next the fire box, procure a piece of tin, bend 
it into the required shape, and wire into place as a pro- 
tection. If it is too hot Qn the bottom, set the iron shelf 
on the bottom, or put a layer of sand an inch deep in the 
oven, or use some other means to raise the article a little 
from the bottom. 

An article of food to be risen in the oven, such as 
muffins, biscuits, etc., should begin to bake on the bottom 
first, because if baked on the top before the bottom, a 



120 HOUSEHOLD SCIENCE. 

crust is formed which is apt to weigh down and make 
the food heavy, instead of light and fluffy, as it should be. 
To prevent too great heat on the top of the oven, sprinkle 
a little sand or some ashes over the top, or lay a piece of 
tin or sheet iron to fit on the iron shelf inside of the oven. 
When a range has been used for a time, it often ceases 
to be hot enough on the bottom and top. In that case, 
brush the ashes off from the top, and scrape them from 
the bottom with the iron which comes with every range 
for that purpose. 

The following general rules will aid in learning to use 
ovens of different kinds of stoves and ranges : 

In a hotel range, there is a fire between two ovens. 
In such ranges, the article to be cooked will do best on 
the bottom of the oven, provided the fire is right for 
baking, but if the ranges have been kept very hot for a 
long time in order to keep kettles boiling on the top, the 
ovens will become too hot, and a grate will be needed. 
In a brick oven, if well regulated by use of dampers, food 
will bake evenly in all parts of the oven, except very near 
the fire. 

In an ordinary range in the home, the food will usually 
bake best on the bottom of the oven. In stoves which 
have ovens above the fire, as gas, gasoline, and kerosene 
stoves and ranges, the article to be cooked should be 
placed on the grate. The heat in such ovens is controlled 
by raising or lowering the flame, rather than by the use 
of dampers. When you can control the oven, see that 
the fire is such as to give right heat when you are ready 
to use it ; but if you are compelled to use the oven when 
the stove is fixed for something else, set a pan of cold 
water in to cool it a little before putting anything in to 
bake. When the water is hot, take it out and put in the 
article to be baked. If cold water is put in after the ar- 
ticle begins to bake, the heat is checked too suddenly, and 
the loaf is prevented rising as it should. If the hot water 



BREAD MAKING. 121 

is left in the oven, the steam will prevent the crisp crust 
liked by many. The oven door should always be closed 
gently. It is evident that the jarring caused by careless- 
ness in this regard may break the delicate cell walls which 
surround the air bubbles. These cell walls are swollen by 
the heat before they become hardened and set, and the 
omelet, cake, etc., will fall if jarred much. 

How to Test the Heat of the Oven. 

Expensive oven thermometers, such as are used on 
brick ovens and large bakers, have a long tube so that 
the mercury extends far into the oven. The dial on the 
outside thus registers the degree of heat at the center of 
the oven. The small, index thermometer used in the 
home range is inserted in the oven door (by drilling a 
hole through), and can extend but a short distance in- 
ward. Such a thermometer is some help, but must be 
carefully used, as it is intended to register a certain num- 
ber of degrees, and when heated beyond that it is apt to 
be injured. It does not extend into the interior of the 
oven, and so is probably less accurate than the larger 
ones. Nevertheless, it is a benefit to the painstaking wo- 
man, as she can get a good idea of the heat of the oven 
without allowing it to escape by holding the door open. 

For angel cake, sponge cake, pound cake, and kisses, 
have the oven so cool that it will require five minutes to 
turn a piece of white paper light yellow. For all butter 
cakes, have the oven so as to color the same kind of 
paper dark yellow in the same length of time. 

For bread, have the oven hot enough so that there 
will be little specks of brown on the bread in ten minutes. 
For rolls, have the oven just a little hotter than for bread. 

For pastry, have the oven as hot as you can without 
burning the article cooked. When the crust of a pie is 
cooked, lower the heat to allow the fruit to cook, if not 
already done. 



122 



HOUSEHOLD SCIENCE. 



Heat of Oven for Breads. 

In baking bread and rolls, allow the heat to increase a 
little during the first twenty minutes. After that, let it 
decrease a little, but keep a good steady heat until the 
bread is done. The dough takes heat from the oven dur- 
ing the first half of the time ; after that the dough is hot, 
and merely needs its heat kept up. 

Baking powder biscuits, soda biscuits, and other ar- 
ticles of food which are made light by the gas liberated 
on heating an acid and an alkali in the presence of moist- 
ure, should have an oven as hot as possible without burn- 
ing the article baked. Gems and such things as have no 
leavening agent, but depend on the expansion of the cold 
liquid and air beaten into the flour, should have an oven 
nearly as hot. When things have risen, the heat should 
decrease a little to bake them through. 



References: 
:!(i2. 363. 



Science & Art of Bread Making — Jago — pp. 




CHAPTER X. 

MAIZE OR INDIAN CORN. 

The Indians made much use of maize, and whether it 
is a native of Mexico, Central America, or Northern 
South America is not definitely known. It may have 
been indigenous in all these regions. There is evidence 
that it has long been under man's influence. The speci- 
mens of minature ears, only three or four inches in length, 
which were the mute associates of the Cliff Dwellers and 
Peruvian Mummy relics on exhibition at the World's 
Fair, give evidence of an early history. We have inter- 
esting stories of how the Indians preserved the flavor of 
the corn by thorough drying in the ear, and then shelling, 
and again drying before a fire, or in the hot sun, to expel 
all the moisture before storing in caches or holes in 
the earth. It is difficult to understand how it could be 
sufficiently protected by mats to prevent it absorbing 
moisture from the surrounding earth when stored in this 
way, though of course dry places were chosen for the 
caches. There are many varieties of corn of each of the 
four general classes, — the flint, the dent, the sweet, and 
the pop corn. We see by the table herewith that the 
flint and the dent corn have practically the same chemical 
composition. 

By using varieties of one or the other of these classes, 
corn can be successfully grown in every state in the 
Union. The flint and pop varieties flourish in the cooler 
climate of the northern corn belt, while the dent and the 
larger sweet kinds prefer the milder climate farther 
south. It is said that climate exerts a marked effect on 
the variety of corn, and that flint corn, when planted 



124 



HOUSEHOLD SCIENCE. 



farther south, will gradually become larger and later in 
maturing. As to which is more nutritious, the yellow 
or the white corn, no definite distinction can be made. 
Both chemical analysis and experience have failed to find 
the one or the other uniformly better. Some varieties of 
one are found superior to certain varieties of the other. 



Corn, tlent 

Corn, flint 

Corn, sweet 

Corn, ]h>]i 

Barley 

Oats 

Bye 

Wheat, spring 

Wheat, winter 

Wheat, all varieties. 

Rice 

Buckwheat 

Cornmeal 

Oatmeal 

Rarleymeal 

Rye flour 

Wheat flour 

Graham flour 

Buckwheat flour 













<u 




















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r. 








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11.1! 


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III. 7 


l.:. 


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Analysts of Foods— Compiled by Jenkins & Winston. Hand Rook, Experi- 
ment Station Work. 

Among domestic animals, corn holds a place similar to 
that conferred on wheat by the human family. To them 
it seems to lie the most palatable and is the strongest in 
fattening qualities of all the cereals. The reason for this 
liking may be that they find greater pleasure in eating 
the hard corn, which breaks up into little hard particles, 
and gives opportunity for much mastication. The wheat 
grain makes a sticky, unpleasant, doughy mass when 
crushed in the mouth. Chemical analysis shows that corn 
carries much nutrition. The market price is usually low. 
For these two reasons, corn is by far the cheapest food for 
man over much of the civilized world. Why is it not 
more generally used for food ? 

The composition of cornmeal is given in the preceding 
table. The following cut from Xew Jersey Bulletin No. 



MAIZE OR INDIAN CORN. 125 

105, may aid in fixing; in the mind the relative amounts 
of protein, starch, mineral matter, oil, etc., contained in 
the whole grains of corn before milled. 

a is the outer covering of the grain of corn, or bran. 
This consists of two layers and constitutes practically all 
the crude fiber of the grain. 

b is a layer of gluten cells which lies next the bran. 
This is usually yellow in color. 

c is the germ. This is rich in oil and mineral matter 
and contains some gluten. 

(/ is composed largely of starch. 



Corn contains a smaller amount of proteid matter than 
wheat, and its gluten is of a very different quality. It is not 
possible to make so porous a loaf from cornmeal as from 
wheat flour. Corn bread is to most persons more palata- 
ble when hot than when cold. In wheat, the parts which 
affect the keeping qualities of the flour can be very com- 
pletely separated out in the milling by removing the 
aleurone cells and the germ of the wheat. The germ is 
removed from the corn in the process of milling and 
this takes out most of the oil, the germ containing sixty- 
five per cent, of the fat contained in the entire grain. 
The remaining oil is so distributed as to be inseparable, 
and the meal does not long retain its most perfect flavor. 



126 HOUSEHOLD SCIENCE. 

Young- and growing children should not be fed too large- 
ly on corn products. These lack the mineral matter neces- 
sary to bone formation. They have not a sufficient amount 
of protein to build up the growing muscles. By elderly 
people and people of sedentary habits corn can be partaken 
of more freely with good results. Among the people of the 
rural districts of northern Italy, a disease known as "pel- 
legra" prevails. This disease is believed to be caused by 
the exclusive use of corn as a food by these people. The 
corn plant in Italy is not free from disease, as ours in 
this country is. Some claim that the sickness brought 
on from the use of corn as food is due in part to the pres- 
ence of a fungi. Two authorities state "that Fua found 
aspergillus and penicillium fungi in the cornmeal which 
had caused pellagra, and was able to separate from it sev- 
eral poisonous substances, evidently decomposition prod- 
ucts." 

Corn is not so good a single food for man as wheat, 
nor for domestic animals as oats. But for either it is a 
very cheap and useful portion of the ration, especially if 
there are foods to use with it which have an abun- 
dance of protein and mineral nutrients. Man has done 
all in his power to so mill this product as to furnish it in 
the best form, with the best possible keeping qualities. 
Woman's part is to see that it is so cooked as to render 
its nutritive qualities most available for human needs. 
Man urges her to attend to this one thing which remains 
necessary to make corn form at least a part of our diet 
of every-day life. 

A very large amount of corn is used each year in the 
manufacture of starch, glucose, beer, spirits, etc. Corn- 
starch is used to some extent for human food, and very 
largely for laundry purposes, and for sizing in the manu- 
facture of cotton textiles and paper. The processes by 
which starch is manufactured from corn vary somewhat, 
but are essentially as follows : Mature corn is used for 



MAIZE OR INDIAN CORN. 127 

the purpose. The germ and hull are separated from the 
rest of the grain either by machinery or by soaking the 
grain in warm water, crushing into medium-sized par- 
ticles, and separating by gravity. The hulls float, and the 
germs sink. The water flows on, carrying with it the 
starch and the gluten. The gluten is lighter than the 
starch, and thus the two are afterwards separated. The 
parts of the corn which cannot he utilized for either 
starch or glucose are called by-products, and are used 
for stock. They have a high feeding value. The refuse 
contains the protein, fat, and mineral matter of the corn 
grain. When hominy and other cereals are manufac- 
tured from corn, the skin and germ form practically the 
by-product, the proteid in this case being largely pre- 
served as part of that designed for human food. 

The green succulent ears of the varieties of sweet corn 
are very tempting, and judging from the great and in- 
creasing demand for the various forms of green corn, 
woman's skill is not lacking in preparing it for the table. 
Immense amounts pour into our cities during the sum- 
mer for immediate consumption. 

Green corn is brought north from the southern mar- 
kets about the first of June. In the middle states a favor- 
able season makes it ready for use about the middle of 
July. In the New England states it comes into the mar- 
ktet about the first of August. A succession of crops 
keeps it procurable until the middle of October, or even 
later. In the use of this luxury, as in many other in- 
stances, farmers have a decided advantage over their 
city cousins. Green corn, to be at its best, should have 
attained the full size of its kernels. At this stage it is 
said to be never unwholesome. It soon deteriorates in 
flavor, and should always be eaten on the same day that 
it is picked. By the second day, it has lost much of its 
flavor, and is no doubt less wholesome, if not less di- 
gestible. Farmers usually raise a supply of sweet corn 



128 HOUSEHOLD SCIENCE. 

for home consumption, in addition to what is marketed, 
so that, both in amount and value, sweet corn forms an 
important item in farm produce. Sweet corn is very 
largely preserved, both by canning and drying. The 
work is so successfully done that much of the flavor of 
the fresh corn is preserved. This not only pleases the 
palate, but aids in preserving good health by answering 
one of the demands of nature for a variety of food 
during the long winter months. Sweet corn, as seen 
in the table, is somewhat richer in protein than the com- 
mon field corn. It has less carbohydrates, but a greater 
amount of fat and protein. It owes its sweetness while 
ripening to glucose. This adds to its palatability, but 
in nutritive qualities it makes practically no difference, 
as sugars and starches have about the same food value. 

Again referring to the table, we find that pop corn 
does not fall below field corn in any of the food ele- 
ments. Unfortunately, pop corn has fallen into bad 
usage. If it were taken at meal time, the system might 
gain something from its nutritive qualities. When taken 
between meals, it can only be classed among those foods 
which, eaten in excess of what is needed, are worse than 
thrown away. Such practices are very injurious to 
health. 

Why should not white men, representatives of a civil- 
ized race, teach the Indians how to use corn to better 
advantage as food, — this native plant, which their le- 
gends say is a gift from the Great Spirit? Why does 
the government continue to place a premium upon its 
misuse? Some years ago the following appeared in one 
of our western papers : 

"Corn in Nebraska sells for twenty-five cents a bushel. 
This, distilled, makes four and one-half gallons of spirits. 
After being manipulated by the distilleries, this makes 
nine gallons of whiskey. This pays the United States 
government ninety cents a gallon, which is a revenue of 
eieht dollars and ten cents from one bushel of corn." 



MAIZE OR INDIAN CORN. 129 

They might have added, this practice takes every sem- 
blance of manhood from many an American citizen. 
It makes him a disgrace to his kind in this world, and 
leaves him without hope in the next. 

If, as some claim, a better knowledge of how to select 
food and prepare it will help to abate this misery, let 
woman regard it not only a duty, but a pleasure, to gain 
all possible information on this subject, and not only 
this, but, having acquired that knowledge, let her be 
untiring in putting it into practice, and bringing it year 
by year to still greater perfection. 

Corn is the basis of America's supremacy in pork, beef, 
and mutton, and does much to add to our fame as a 
dairying nation. American corn would add vitality to 
rice-eating China and India. American corn is best ex- 
ported in the forms of juicy steaks, legs of mutton, sides 
of bacon, and tubs of golden butter ; but while it is so 
cheap in America, it is extravagance not to use more of 
it on our tables. There are fewer persons who under- 
stand the secrets of corn cookery than there are of those 
who can handle wheat products successfully. Every 
mother and every cook should know how to make a 
variety of breads, pones, puddings, mushes, and cakes of 
this truly American food. Let us use it more, and our 
European visitors will carry home with them an acquired 
taste for it. Let wives give it to their husbands when 
hunger brings a good appetite, that they may learn to 
enjoy it. Let our schools teach of its use, since it is the 
most neglected cheap food in America. 

Since corn is not an entire food, and is peculiar, when 
used in large quantities, because of engendering a heated 
or feverish condition of the body and producing fat, it 
has been wrongfully discredited. It is not adapted to 
the whole ration, but with vegetables, meats, and milk 
it is adapted to a larger place in the ration than it now 
occupies. As one-fourth of our food, cornmeal has no 

5 



130 HOUSEHOLD SCIENCE. 

competitor in cheapness, and this is a most important 
consideration with our common people. Corn is pro- 
duced throughout the west annually at twenty cents per 
bushel, or seven dollars per ton. Wheat costs nearly 
or quite three times as much per ton to produce, — sixty 
cents per bushel, being twenty dollars per ton. 

Statistics show that wheat is only a little more valuable 
from either the standpoint of total nutrients or of pro- 
tein compounds. Bread has won our hearts because of 
its dainty white loaves, and our theories and sentiments 
have rightly crowned wheat the queen of the cereals ; 
but corn is king. The poor of the cities, the farmers 
and laboring classes everywhere, should be taught to use 
more of it. The great problem is how to cook it so that 
the flavor and appearance will make it attractive. This, 
accomplished among our home consumers, will save mil- 
lions now spent for more expensive foods. Accomplish 
this in our export countries, and much will be done for 
our farmers who produce American corn. I know of 
no more emphatic statement with which to emphasize 
the main reason for the wider use of corn than that corn 
is too cheap to be adulterated. 

Possiblv, many of our people do not use corn because 
its cheapness causes it to be reckoned common, and 
adapted to those who cannot afford suitable food. Fash- 
ion often makes us foolish. 
Reasons for Scalding Cornmeal before Using'. 

We soak dried beans, dried corn, dried fruits, etc., to 
restore as far as possible their former moisture. Corn 
is so very hard and flinty that soaking in cold water has 
little effect, and the particles remain hard, even after the 
bread is baked. How is it with corn mush? The par- 
ticles are softened, and the starch cells broken and ready 
to be acted upon by the gastric juices. The reasons then, 
in short, are to soften the hard, flinty particles, so that 
the digestive fluids may readily act upon them, and to so 
prepare the corn that the best flavor will be brought out 



MAIZE OR INDIAN CORN. 131 

in cooking. All starches need very thorough cooking. 
Cornmeal should be scalded and allowed to swell hefore 
making into bread of any kind, if one wishes to have the 
finest flavor possible. 

Corn Griddle Cakes with Egg'. 

One cup granulated cornmeal, three-fourths cup boiling 
water, one egg, one teaspoonful sugar, one teaspoonful salt, 
one tablespoonful flour. To make corn griddle cakes, fill 
an earthen bowl with boiling water, and put the measur- 
ing cup and the wooden spoon in the bowl. Measure 
all the dry ingredients, except soda or baking powder, 
and put with the measured meal. Turn the water from 
the bowl, put the meal into it, and pour the boiling water 
on the meal ; then stir, and see that the meal is thoroughly 
mixed. Cover and let set half an hour, when it should 
be about cold. Put the yolk of the egg in, and stir until 
thoroughly incorporated, put in enough cold milk to make 
the batter as thin as it can be without running over the 
griddle, then fold in the well-beaten white. 

In some cases one can use as much boiling water as 
cornmeal, in other cases the meal will not absorb so much 
water. A larger amount of flour may be used than is 
given in the above formula, but the cakes are more delicate 
with little flour. 

In serving griddle cakes, it is better never to pile 
them, because they lose some lightness by such treat- 
ment. In putting them on the griddle, put on a little, 
then put more carefully on this. You can thus have 
the batter much thinner than if a large quantity is put 
on at once. 

Corn Griddle Cakes with Baking Powder. 

One cup granulated cornmeal, three-fourths cup boil- 
ing water, one teaspoonful sugar, one teaspoonful salt, 
one tablespoonful flour, one teaspoonful baking powder 
(generous). Put the baking powder and the flour aside,, 
then proceed as in corn griddle cakes with egg, and 



132 HOUSEHOLD SCIENCE. 

beat in the baking powder and flour, thoroughly mixed, 
at the last. 

Corn Griddle Cakes.— Class Rule. 

One-fourth cup of cornmeal, one-fourth cup of boiling- 
water, three tablespoonfuls of flour, one-fourth cup of 
milk, one-fourth teaspoonful of baking powder, one-fourth 
teaspoonful of sugar, one-fourth teaspoonful of salt, one 
teaspoonful of egg (well beaten). 

Com Griddle Cakes with Sour Milk. 

Proceed in the same manner as for griddle cakes with 
baking powder, except, instead of the baking powder, 
mix with the flour one-half teaspoonful of soda for every 
cup of sour milk used. 

Corn Muffins with Egg. 

One cup granulated cornmeal, three-fourths cup boil- 
ing water, one level teaspoonful sugar, one level tea- 
spoonful of salt, one egg. Proceed exactly as for corn 
griddle cakes, except put in just enough milk so that the 
dough will settle into place in tins. Bake in shallow 
iron gem pans in an oven about the same heat as for 
bread. 

Corn Muffins with Baking Powder. 

One cup granulated cornmeal, three-fourths cup boil- 
ing water, one teaspoonful baking powder (generous), 
one level teaspoonful sugar, one level teaspoonful salt, 
one tablespoonful of flour. Proceed in same manner as 
for corn griddle cakes with baking powder, except make 
the batter less thin, having it just so it will settle into 
shape over the top. 

Corn Muffins — For Class Work. 

One teaspoonful of beaten egg, one-fourth cup corn- 
meal, one fourth cup of boiling water, three tablespoonfuls 
of flour, three tablespoonfuls of milk (sweet), one-fourth 
teaspoonful of baking powder (generous). Have cups, 
bowl and spoon very hot, pour the boiling water over the 



MAIZE OR INDIAN CORN. 133 

meal in the hot bowl and stir well ; add the milk a little at 
a time, then the egg and salt, then the flour with the 
baking powder sifted with it, stir well and bake in a 
moderately hot oven from twenty-five to thirty minutes. 
Serve hot. 

Corn Muffins with Sour Milk.— Class Rule. 

Same as the preceding, except use sour milk, and one- 
fourth teaspoonful soda to one-half cup of milk, instead 
of using sweet milk and baking powder. 

Blueberry Muffins. 

Make same as corn muffins, except add one-half cup 
of blueberries (floured) for each cup of cornmeal used. 
Add berries to batter when ready to bake. 

Corn Gems. 

One pint of cornmeal, one and one-half cups of boiling 
water. Stir together until smooth and cool, then stir in 
two well-beaten eggs. Put in sweet milk enough to make 
the right consistency. If the gems are thin, they will bake 
in twenty minutes. 

Corn Gems (with White Meal). 

One pint of meal, three-fourths pint of boiling water, 
three-fourths pint of sweet cream, two teaspoonfuls of 
sugar, one teaspoonful of salt, two eggs, well beaten, 
two teaspoonfuls of baking powder. Put together, and 
bake same as above. 

Steamed Corn Bread. 

Use either sweet or sour milk, two cups of cornmeal, 
one cup of white flour, three cups of sour milk, two level 
teaspoonfuls of salt, one-fourth cup of shortening, one- 
fourth cup of sugar, one and one-half level teaspoonfuls 
of soda. Mix the flour, sugar, cornmeal and salt together 
and stir into the sour milk. Melt the shortening and stir 
that in very thoroughly. Lastly add the soda mixed with 
a tablespoonful of flour and see that it is well mixed with 



134 HOUSEHOLD SCIENCE. 

the other. Put into a greased pudding mold and steam 
three hours. If sweet milk is used, leave out the soda, 
and add three level teaspoonfuls of baking powder instead 
of the soda. 

Nut Bread. 

Two and one-half cups of flour, half white and 
half whole wheat flour, three level teaspoonfuls bak- 
ing powder, three-fourths cup English walnuts (chop- 
ped), two level teaspoonfuls salt, one and one-half cups 
of sweet milk. Mix the flour, baking powder and salt 
thoroughly, then add the nuts and stir them well through, 
add the milk and stir just enough to mix. Put into greas- 
ed pudding molds and steam three hours, or bake in shal- 
low gem or muffin tins half an hour. 

Corn Bread No. 1. 

One pound butter (two cups), one pound sugar (two 
cups), one pound flour (four cups), one pound cornmeal 
(three cups), one quart milk (four cups), four eggs, 
two tablespoonfuls of baking powder. Rub the sugar 
and butter together, add the milk, then stir in the flour, 
meal and baking powder which have been thoroughly 
mixed. Fold in the well-beaten eggs and bake in a 
moderate oven until well browned. — Mrs. James. 

Corn Bread No. 2. 

One cup granulated cornmeal, three-fourths cup of 
boiling water, one tablespoonful butter, one teaspoonful 
sugar, one teaspoonful salt, two eggs, one-fourth cup of 
flour. Make the same as corn muffins with egg, except 
the flour, which stir in just before the egg yolk, and fold 
the white in very carefully. 

Cornbread with Baking Powder. 

Make same as corn muffins with baking powder, ex- 
cept add one-fourth cup of flour. 



MAIZE OR INDIAN CORN. 135 

Cornbread with Sour Milk and Soda. 

Same as above, except use sour milk instead of sweet, 
and one-fourth teaspoonful of soda to each one-half cup 
of milk. 

Steamed Brown Bread. 

Two-thirds of a teaspoonful of salt, one cup of milk, 
one-third of a cup of sorghum molasses, two-thirds of a 
cup of graham flour, one cup of cornmeal, one teaspoon- 
ful of baking powder, one-third of a cup of raisins and 
currants mixed. Put together in the order given, and put 
the fruit between layers of the mixture. Steam three 
hours. , M 



CHAPTER XI. 



LUNCH BASKETS. 



The lunch basket should have sufficient bottom surface 
to allow sandwiches, etc., to lie without piling. It should 
be sufficiently roomy to admit of a glass for water, as 
neither the child at school nor the man at his work 
should drink from a public cup. There should be room 




Child's Lunch Basket. 

for a small plate, as a piece of pie, even though not 
always best for the stomach, makes a pleasant variety at 
times. 

Whether a basket or a tin pail is the better receptacle, 
let each person decide for himself. The lunch must be 
protected from dust, and if a basket is used, there is 
necessarily an extra napkin about the lunch to prevent 



LUNCH BASKETS. 137 

evaporation, as well as to protect from the dust. A tin 
pail often causes an unpleasant combination of flavors if 
the lunch stands long. Sandwiches necessarily form a 
portion of all lunches, and they keep far better when 
wrapped in paraffine paper. The aim should be to give 
some substantial sandwiches and some daintier ones each 
day. A variety should be given on different days. Fruit 
of some kind should always form a portion of a lunch. 
For children's lunches, the cake used should be some- 
thing simple, as sponge cake, ginger bread, etc. 

Such vegetables as can be carried, as celery, lettuce, 
tomatoes, and radishes, accompanied only by a little salt, 
are often relished by children. The first two vegetables 
make sandwiches which are enjoyed by both adults and 
children. 

SANDWICHES. 
Use the best bread for making sandwiches. Cut a thin 
crust from the end of the loaf, and butter the cut sur- 
face before cutting off a thin slice. Warm the butter a 
little, that it may spread without tearing the surface of 
the bread. Use whole wheat, graham, or white bread, 
as preferred. Leave the slices plain, simply cutting in 
the center and folding over, or cut in fancy shapes, as 
desired. The crust may be removed on special occa- 
sions, but it is usually better to leave the crust on, both 
from an economical and a hygienic standpoint. 

Lettuce Sandwich. 

Butter thin slices of bread, lay a lettuce leaf on 
each, and on one-half spread cooked mayonnaise dress- 
ing, made as on page 285, and seasoned with three- 
fourths of a teaspoonful of mixed seasoning (No. 1) to 
one cup of the dressing. Lay the other lettuce leaf on 
this, and the other slice of bread on top of that. 

Water Cress Sandwich. 

Make same as lettuce sandwich, except use water cress 
instead of lettuce. 



138 HOUSEHOLD SCIENCE. 

Salad Dressing for Lettuce Sandwich. 

Use equal parts of cooked dressing ( with a large quan- 
tity of butter) and whipped cream. Season to taste with 
mixed seasoning. 

Ham Sandwich No. 1. 

Hash scraps of ham very fine, using one-fourth as 
much fat as lean. Season to taste with made mustard. 
Butter thin slices of bread, and spread with the ham. 

Ham Sandwich No. 2. 

Mince bits of ham fine, season salad dressing same as 
directed for lettuce sandwiches, mix with the ham and 
spread between slices of buttered bread. 

Plain Meat Sandwich. 

Cut cold meat very thin, and lay between slices of but- 
tered bread. 

Mustard Sandwich. 

Chop cold meat very fine, and moisten with mustard 
made to use with cold meats, and spread between slices 
of buttered bread. 

Picnic Sandwich. 

Bake plain rolls of bread dough. Cut a circular 
piece from the end, and take out the crumb. Fill the 
cavity with minced chicken or ham, moistened with salad 
dressing, and return the piece cut off. 

Cottage Cheese Sandwich. 

Butter thin slices of bread, and spread with cottage 
cheese. 

Lettuce and Cheese Sandwich. 

Butter thin slices of bread, lay a lettuce leaf on the 
slice, place on this some cottage cheese, then another leaf 
of lettuce, then another slice of buttered bread. 



LUNCH BASKETS. 139 

Cheese Sandwich No. 1. 

Butter thin slices of bread, and between the pieces lay 
thin slices of cheese. 

Cheese Sandwich No. 2. 

Spread thin slices of bread with butter, then sprinkle 
thickly with grated cheese. Put the slices together, and 
cut in any shapes desired. 

Celery Sandwich. 

Wash crisp, white celery, wipe dry, and cut into small 
pieces. Mix with the same kind of salad dressing as di- 
rected for lettuce sandwiches, and spread between the 
buttered slices. 

Celery and Nut Sandwich. 

Make same as celery sandwich, except add one-third 
as much chopped English walnuts as there is chopped 
celery. 

Egg Sandwich No. 1. 

Butter thin slices of bread, and spread between them 
hard boiled eggs chopped and moistened with white 
sauce (page 53), seasoned with salt and pepper. 

Egg Sandwich No. 2. 

Remove the shells from hard-boiled eggs. Chop the 
eggs very fine, or press through a potato ricer, moisten 
with cooked salad dressing (page 285), seasoned with 
one teaspoonful of mixed salad seasoning (page 287) 
to each cup of dressing used. Spread the mixture on 
thin slices of buttered bread. 

Egg Sandwich (with Lettuce) No. 3. 

Place a lettuce leaf on the buttered bread, spread this 
with the prepared egg, place another lettuce leaf on it, 
and then the other slice of buttered bread. 



140 HOUSEHOLD SCIENCE. 

Egg Sandwich No. 4. 

Hard boil the eggs. Remove the shells, hash, season 
with pepper, salt, and a little butter, spread on thin slices 
of buttered bread, and lay together. 

Sardine Sandwich. 

Mince the desired quantity of sardines, and mix with 
one-third the quantity of ham chopped. Moisten with 
made mustard (page 495). Spread thin slices of bread 
with butter, and spread the mixture on the bread. Put 
two slices together, and cut in any form. 



CHAPTER XII. 

CANNING. 

Use a granite or porcelain kettle for cooking all acid 
fruits and vegetables. A wooden spoon is best for stir- 
ring. 




Canning and Jelly Making. 

The first thing necessary is to prepare the cans. Wash 
them thoroughly with soapsuds, and, if need be, boil them 
in lye water. When jars and covers are perfectly clean 
and free from odors, fit each jar with cover and rubber, 
and let stand upside down with water in, that you may 
be sure they do not leak. When they are fitted, keep 
them together until they are used, but do not put covers 
on the jars as they are apt to smell when opened. When 
sugar is used in fruit, it should be put in just long enough 



142 HOUSEHOLD SCIENCE. 

before sealing to be melted, as it loses sweetness by cook- 
ing with fruit. 

Both vegetables and fruits for canning should be per- 
fectly mature, but not over ripe. They should be free 
from blemish, and cooked and canned as soon as possible 
after picking. After they become mature, they soon be- 
gin to deteriorate. 

Prepare to take each fruit and vegetable when in sea- 
son, and at its best. When getting ready for a day of 
canning, try to can the most perfect, and make marma- 
lades or butters of the cullings. 

In order to be sure that canned goods will keep, you 
must be certain that there are no living germs in the 
cans when sealed. The finest and most perfect fruits and 
vegetables have the best flavor, and are most apt to be 
free from germs. 

Fruits have a better color and flavor when cooked in 
small quantities, because they are not cooked so long. 
They keep better, because they are more apt to be actually 
boiling hot all through. 

Rule for Canning Fruits and Vegetables- 

Have fresh, perfect fruit. Be sure that jars, rubbers, 
and covers are sterilized and hot. Fill brimful with 
material actually boiling hot all through, have the top 
edge of the can clean, seal tight, and screw the cover 
tighter when it has cooled a little. 

Pieplant is the first of the fruit kind to appear in the 
spring, and, on account of its pleasant acid taste, it is not 
unwelcome through the winter in shortcakes, pies and 
marmalades. 

To Can Pieplant. 

Wash the stalks of pieplant, and, if old enough to have 
a tough skin, peel. Cut in pieces, and cook in a small 
amount of water until soft and thoroughly heated through. 
Sweeten or not, as you like, as this makes no difference 
with its keeping. Have a large pan of hot water on the 



CANNING. 143 

stove, with an iron rack in the bottom of it for the cans 
to lie on. Let the water extend at least half way up 
the cans. Have the water boiling", and put the cans in 
it, each one with its rubber on, and its cover by its side. 
Lay the cans in the water so that water will be inside and 
out. When the fruit is cooked (in a separate kettle), raise 
a jar, empty the water into the pan, fill within half an 
inch of the top, wipe the edge clean, and finish filling 
to the brim with boiling water. Take the cover from 
the hot water, screw it on, and set the jar on a wet towel 
out of the draft. As it cools, put the cover down a little 
if you can. Be sure that the cans, as well as covers and 
rubbers, are sterilized, the contents boiling hot, and the 
covers on tight, for it is on these things that success de- 
pends. Pieplant may be cut into pieces, packed in jars 
that have been sterilized and cooled, and the contents 
then covered with water which has been boiled and cooled, 
and it is pretty apt to keep, if the work is done quickly, 
and the jar sealed at once; for the only chance for germs 
is on the pieplant itself. Pieplant may be also cut into 
pieces, put in hot sterilized jars, covered with boiling 
water, put in a pan of water in the oven, with support 
for the jars, and the covers screwed on after it is cooked 
some, but not enough to fall to pieces. This will look 
prettier than when broken up in cooking. 

When fruit is scarce, some pieplant should always be 
canned while it is still young and tender. One part of 
pieplant with two parts of plums makes a fine-flavored 
fruit butter. Apples may be successfully mixed with pie- 
plant in the same way. 

To Can Soft Berries, as Raspberries and Dewberries. 

You may cook and can them same as pieplant, and 
this is best for all general purposes, but they are prettier 
when packed in sterilized jars, set in water on a rack, heated 
until the juices run freely, then the cans filled with boil- 



144 HOUSEHOLD SCIENCE. 

ing syrup, and sealed. To be certain that the juice and 
syrup mix well, tie a piece of cheesecloth over the neck 
of the jar, decant the liquid, boil and pour on again and 
seal. 

Canning Fruits Without Cooking. 

Sugar is a preserving agent, and some fruits may, with 
its aid, be canned and kept without cooking. Currants 
are often so put up for use with meats. Crush the fruit, 
and be sure that not a berry escapes, and mix thoroughly 
with an equal amount of sugar. Fill sterilized jars brim- 
ful and screw covers on tight. 

To Can Peaches and Cherries. 

If the peaches are very soft, they may be cooked in a 
syrup to prevent breaking. The sugar will harden the 
fruit, but will lose some of its sweetness. Both peaches 
and cherries have a better flavor when some pits are 
cooked with them. These take up room in the cans, of 
course. The peach pits should be cracked before cooking. 

Cherries may be canned whole in same manner as 
berries. 

To Can Peaches and Pears Whole. 

Pare the fruit carefully, to leave as smooth a surface as 
possible, and cook in syrup until tender. Then put care- 
fully and compactly into the sterilized jars, strain the 
liquid over, fill to the very brim, and seal. 

To Can Corn. 

Select ears of corn in the perfect roasting-ear stage, 
and with a sharp knife score each row of grains, cut a 
very thin slice from the ends of all the grains, and with a 
kitchen knife scrape the rest off the cob. For each quart 
of corn, put into the kettle a pint of water and half a 
tablespoon ful of salt, put the corn to cook, and add more 
boiling water as it evaporates. Let it cook for fifteen or 
twenty minutes after it actually boils all through. Watch 
and stir with a wooden spoon to prevent burning, but 



CANNING. 145 

do not allow to stop boiling. When it has actually boiled 
twenty minutes, fill the jars to within one-half an inch of 
the top, cram down with the spoon to prevent air bubbles 
through it, finish filling' with boiling water, and seal ac- 
cording to rule. May cook corn in jars, but it is difficult 
to sterilize in center of jars, and it will spoil unless 
perfectly sterile. It must be cooked in the jars not less 
than four hours. 

To Can Peas. 

Pick the peas just before using. Shell, cook half an 
hour, and salt same as for the table, put into sterilized 
jars, and seal. 

Or, put the peas into the cans, fill with water, add salt, 
as for eating, put covers on loosely, and cook in boiling 
water four hours, and seal as before. The first are more 
apt to keep well. 

To Can String Beans. 

Choose, prepare, and cook as for the table, except to 
season with salt only, and seal according to rule. 

Directions for canning often say "cook in the cans 
in hot-water bath." This is well if the cooking is done 
thoroughly, but it is difficult to cook thoroughly unless 
a very long time is allowed. The center is often not boil- 
ing hot. 

To Can Tomatoes. 

Tomatoes are easily canned, and their acid, pleasant 
taste adds much to the winter fare. To can tomatoes, 
gather ripe, red tomatoes, and prepare them as for serv- 
ing raw. Put to cook in a porcelain lined or granite 
ware kettle, and boil until absolutely certain that every 
particle in the kettle is boiling hot. While these are 
cooking, see that the covers and rubbers fit the cans by 
trying them with water. Let covers, rubbers, and cans 
stand immersed in boiling water until ready to use them. 
Pour the tomatoes boiling hot into the hot cans, on which 



146 HOUSEHOLD SCIENCE. 

the rubbers are fitted. Fill brimful, and screw on covers. 
Turn the jars upside down, wrap in a wet cloth, and let 
stand until cold. Screw the covers down tighter as they 
cool. When cold, set in a cool, dry place. Do not al- 
low to freeze. 

To Can Tomatoes Whole. 

Select perfect medium-sized tomatoes. Fill the jars 
with them, after sterilizing the jars and washing the 
tomatoes. To each quart of tomatoes put one tablespoon- 
ful of salt, fill the jar with boiling water, and seal. 

Or, scald and pare the tomatoes, fill the jars with 
them, pour in boiling water half way up the side of 
the jar, set in a pan in the oven on rack, and when thor- 
oughly heated, but not falling to pieces, fill to the brim 
with boiling water, and seal. These are nice for special 
dishes, but too much trouble for every-day use. 
FOOD PRESERVATIVES. 

Salt and sugar have been used as preservatives, one 
might almost say, since time immemorial. Smoke, and a 
small amount of heat, as in making bacon, might be listed 
among preservatives. 

The word "preservative," as now used, means powders 
used for keeping fruits, meats, milk and other food in a 
fresh condition. These preservative powders ars sold un- 
der many different names, but each usually contains some 
chemical which is injurious to health. Borax, boric acid, 
salicylic acid, and formalin are the chemicals generally 
used. A preservative may contain one or more than one 
of these. 

There is no reason why foods should not be preserved 
in the household by those good old methods practiced by 

References: Common Sense in the Household — Harland — 
pp. 463-467; Parloa's Kitchen Companion, pp. 84-90, 827, 834- 
846; The Art of Cookery— Ewing— pp. 163-165; Food Products 
of the World — Green — pp. 35-37; Boston Cook Book — Lincoln — 
pp. 401-403; Elements of Cookery — Williams & Fisher — pp. 
282-286; Ann. Rep. Minn. Exp. Station 1899, pp. 516, 517. 



FRUIT SAUCES. 147 

our forefathers. Drying- and canning fruits and vege- 
tables, salting and smoking meats, and either sterilizing 
milk, or subjecting it to sufficient cold to prevent its sour- 
ing in a reasonable length of time. Such methods of 
preserving are effective, and the products are wholesome, 
but the preservatives sold and used are very generally 
harmful. 

FRUIT SAUCES. 

In order that a food material may do its best work, it is 
essential that it be as free as possible from all impurities. 
This is especially true of such as are eaten raw, as green 
apples and other fresh fruits. Such food should always 
be sound and mature. 

While undeveloped or impure foods may cause injury, 
proper selection and preparation of foods will often do 
more toward relieving aggravated forms of dyspepsia than 
the most skilled physician is able to accomplish by any 
other means. The ambition of a good cook is to become 
so proficient in the art of selecting and preparing foods 
as to understand which ones, when cooked, will best sub- 
serve the purposes of the body ; and then prepare them in 
such a way that they will retain all their nutrients, giving 
the consumer the full benefit of the food he eats. Fruits 
should never be cooked in a vessel of tin or iron. Both 
the color and the flavor of the acid fruit thus cooked 
will be injured. A wooden spoon or a paddle is best 
for stirring such foods, as wood is not acted on by the 
acid of the fruit. The color which the fruit gives to 
both spoon and vessel can be removed by immersing in 
boiling water before washing in soapsuds. A dust of 
salt added to almost any fruit while hot emphasizes the 
flavor. Great care must be exercised that an over amount 
of neither sugar nor salt be added, for the object is to 
bring out the flavor of the fruit, without a hint of the 
presence of anything else. Sugar should be added to 

References: Ann. Rep. Minn. Exp. Station 1899, pp. 507, 
508. 



148 HOUSEHOLD SCIENCE. 

the fruit just before removing from the fire, because, if 
the sugar is heated with the fruit any length of time, it 
loses much of its sweetening power. Cooking the fruit 
after the sugar is added tends also to harden the fruit. 

Most farmers can raise a sufficient quantity of grapes 
for family use with little trouble. We might all well 
echo Mr. Gladstone's advocacy of the extension of fruit 
culture: "We shamefully neglect the best of all food in 
using so little fruit." It is possible to have at least cooked 
fruit during the long winter, when there is a dearth of 
green vegetables. Fruit is not a luxury, but it is neces- 
sary to the continued good health of our families. 

Grapes are easily handled, since they will jelly when 
not fully ripe, or after they have lain in cold storage 
for weeks. They are an economical fruit because, after 
the juice has been strained out, the remaining portion 
may be put through a sieve and made into butter of 
very good quality. The skins and seeds are all that are 
lost, and these would not be digested if eaten. 

In most sections of our country, apples can be cheaply 
grown. Apples not only keep long in good condition, 
but have a flavor which is not impaired after the fruit 
has been stored for many months. They can be successful- 
ly canned or dried, and thus preserved for all seasons of 
the year. This fruit is such a universal favorite, and its 
free use aids so much in keeping the body in good condi- 
tion, that no farm, however small, if in the apple belt, 
should be considered complete without its apple orchard. 
Apples are relished in almost any form. For many per- 
sons, nothing is more wholesome, or has a more useful 
medicinal effect, than an apple taken at the beginning of 
the morning meal. Such persons as cannot readily masti- 
cate and digest raw apples often receive benefit from a 
scraped apple, or one which has been baked. The flavor 
■ of the apple is delicate and easily impaired. To many 
persons, apple sauce has a finer flavor when eaten while 
still warm. 



FRUIT SAUCES. 149 

To Stew Apples. 

Pare, quarter, core, and wash the apples. Place the 
prepared quarters in a saucepan with a small quantity 
of hot water, cover closely, and stew rapidly for five or 
ten minutes. If, on removing the cover, the apples fall 
apart readily, they are done. In this case, put into a 
dish half the quantity of sugar required to sweeten the 
apples, pour on this the hot apples, sprinkle over them 
the other half of the required quantity of sugar, cover 
closely, and serve hot or warm. If to be used cold, allow 
to remain covered until cold, in order to retain the flavor. 

Cook apples as rapidly as possible in order to preserve 
the flavor of the fruit. The amount of water necessary 
depends upon the condition of the apple. Very juicy 
apples will require no more water than will adhere to 
the fruit in washing it before cooking. If the apples 
are very dry, they may require three-fourths of a cup 
to each pint. The flavor of the apple is usually delicate 
and easily destroyed, therefore only the quantity of water 
necessary to thorough cooking should be added. For the 
same reason, all unnecessary stirring either before or 
after cooking should be avoided. 

To Bake Apples. 

Core and pare tart apples, leaving them whole. Fill the 
cavity where the core was with sugar, and bake until soft. 
Use a granite ware pan, as either tin or iron is acted on 
by the acid. 

Baked Apple Sauce. 

Pare and core sweet apples. Put a little water in the 
pan to prevent burning, and cook until done. 

To Make Cider Apple Sauce. 

Boil sweet cider until it is reduced one-half, then add 
sweet apples which have been pared, quartered, and cored, 
and cook until the apples are dark and transparent. Keep 
the apples covered with cider while cooking. When the 



150 HOUSEHOLD SCIENCE. 

apples are done, skim them out, and put more to cook in 
the same cider. If stone jars are thoroughly hoiled and 
the cider apple sauce put into them while both jars and 
sauce are hot it will keep well in a cool place in open 
jars. It will, of course, keep the same as canned fruit 
if put into glass jars air tight. 

Rhubarb and Apples. 

One part canned rhubarb to two parts of sour apples, 
cooked and mixed with the rhubarb, makes a pleasant 
variety. 

To Stew Cranberries. 

Put two quarts of cranberries, after they are looked 
over and washed, into a granite ware or porcelain 
lined kettle, and pour over them one and one-half pints 
of boiling water, cover closely, and cook until the skins 
burst. Mash them through a strainer to remove skins, 
put again over the fire, add three cups of sugar, and when 
it is thoroughly mixed with the fruit and melted, remove 
from the fire. The sauce will jell when cold. 

To Stew Cranberries— Class Rule. 

One cup cranberries, one-half cup water (scant), one- 
half cup sugar (scant). Proceed as above. 

Currant and Huckleberry Sauce. 

Look over and wash the desired quantity of fruit, using 
one-third as many currants as huckleberries. Put to cook 
in the water that clings to them. Cook slowly until done, 
and sweeten to taste. Dried currants and canned black- 
berries make nice pies, when mixed in this proportion. 

Currant and Elderberry Sauce. 

Make same as currant and huckleberry sauce. 

Raspberry and Currant Sauce. 

Red raspberries and currants make a nice sauce, but 
when they can be had fresh are better raw than cooked. 



FRUIT SAUCES. 151 

Blackberry Sauce. 

Look the blackberries over, and take the finest out to 
serve raw. Put the cullings to cook, using one cup of 
hot water to each quart of berries. Make half a cup of 
flour into a batter with half a cup of cold water. Put one- 
fourth of a teaspoonful of salt into one cup of boiling 
water, and pour this into the batter, stirring constantly 
to prevent lumping. When well mixed, stir it into the 
berries, and cook until the flour ceases to have a raw 
taste. Sweeten to taste, and serve cold with cream. 

To Stew Pieplant. 

Pieplant may be prepared for sauce in the same way 
as the blackberries, but when young and tender is best 
cooked in a little water and sweetened. Old pieplant 
must be peeled. 

To Stew Gooseberries No. 1. 

Proceed in the same way as for blackberries, after hav- 
ing removed the stems and blossom ends. When goose- 
berries are young, just cook with a little water and 
sweeten. 

To Stew Gooseberries No. 2. 

Pick off the stems and the blossom ends, wash the ber- 
ries, and put to cook in just enough water to prevent burn- 
ing. When about done, add a pinch of soda, set off the 
fire, and sweeten to taste. 

To Cook Dried Fruit. 

Thoroughly wash the fruit in warm water, then put 
to soak in sufficient cold water to cover it. Let stand 
until it has absorbed all the water it will take up, then 
put to cook in the water in which it was soaked. Cook 
slowly and continuously, after it reaches the boiling point, 
until it becomes tender. Sweeten just before removing 
from the fire. Many dried fruits have better flavor when 
a very sweet and a very acid variety are cooked together. 
Prunes and apricots are a good example of such a mix- 



152 HOUSEHOLD SCIENCE. 

ture. Like fresh fruits, they should be cooked covered. 
Dried plums, if very sour, are improved by having an 
equal quantity of prunes or seedless raisins cooked with 
them. 

To Cook Dried Apples. 

Look the apples over, wash clean, and put to soak in 
plenty of cold water. Let soak several hours, or over 
night, and put to cook in the water in which they were 
soaked and cook slowly until done. Remove from the 
fire and sweeten. 

All dried fruits are prepared and cooked in the same 
way. 

Dried Apples and Raisins, or Dried Currants. 

Use equal parts of the two fruits, and proceed as above. 

Stewed Prunellos and Pears. 

Use equal portions of the two fruits. Look over, 
wash, and put to soak in cold water in separate bowls. 
When swollen, put to cook in the. water in which soaked, 
but cook the prunellos an hour before adding the pears. 
When soft, but not mushy, sweeten. 

To Stew Prunes and Apricots. 

Look over a pint of prunes and the same amount of 
apricots. Put to soak in separate bowls with cold water 
to cover, and let soak until they are plump, and have 
absorbed all the water they will. Then put the prunes to 
cook in a well-scalded cheesecloth bag. When they have 
cooked slowly an hour, add the apricots, and cook until 
they are done. Remove the prunes, sweeten the remain- 
ing fruit and juice, and pour over the prunes half of the 
liquid. 

To Stew Prunes with Plums. 

Proceed in same manner as with prunes and apricots. 



FRUIT SAUCES. 153 

Dried Fruit Butter. 

Use equal portions of apricots and prunes well cooked 
and mashed through a colander. Put over the fire, let 
become boiling hot, sweeten and serve. Equal parts of 
seedless raisins and apricots make a nice sauce also. 

Buttered Apples. 

Select a rather tart apple, pare and core, being careful 
not to break the apple, place in a rather shallow dripping 
pan, put a teaspoonful of sugar in the center of each ap- 
ple. Make a basting liquid by heating together half a 
cup of water, four level teaspoonfuls of butter and one- 
fourth cup of sugar ; baste the apples before putting them 
in the oven. Bake in a moderately hot oven ; basting two 
or three times while baking. 

To Steam Pieplant. 

Use tender pieplant, cut in small pieces, wash and put 
into upper part of double boiler ; set this in the water boil- 
ing in lower part, and put again over the fire, and let cook 
until done; then sweeten and serve. 



CHAPTER XIII. 

JELLIES. MARMALADES, PRESERVES AND PICKLES- 
JELLY MAKING. 

Fruit juices must be skimmed while cooking to pre- 
vent cloudy jelly. To have clear, sparkling jelly, it is 
safer to strain the second time. To do this, have jelly 
bag, jelly dipper, and an earthen pitcher, as well as 
jelly glasses, ready in hot water, and when the jelly is 
ready to pour out, strain into the glasses. Some things 
jell so suddenly that much is lost by trying to strain, un- 
less done quickly. 

For all jellies measure the liquid after straining before 
putting to cook, and use an equal amount of sugar or 
less, as you like, for the jelling depends on the pectin 
of the fruit, and the juice will jell with no sugar. If 
the jelly is for meat, use less sugar than if for some 
other purpose. When the sugar and fruit juice have 
been measured, put the juice to cook in a new granite 
or porcelain lined kettle, — at least one free from stains 
if you wish a transparent jelly of its own color, — and 
the sugar in the oven to heat. The object in having the 
sugar hot is simply to hasten the work of jelly making, 
and the jelly is probably a little clearer when so made, as 
the boiling need not. stop when the sugar is added. Jel- 
lies will also have a better color and flavor when the juice 
is cooked so that the sugar need be added only long 
enough, before taking from the fire, to be thoroughly dis- 
solved and perfectly combined with the fruit juice. 

Paraffine poured over the top of jelly to the thickness 
of one-fourth of an inch makes a good, cheap, and con- 
venient covering. When ready to use the jelly, loosen 
the edges of the paraffine with a knife, and remove it, 
wash the paraffine, dry it, and lay it away for future use. 



JELLIES. 155 

In using" the following formulae, be sure that the 
directions are faithfully carried out. These are rules 
which have been tested and used in classes, and any vari- 
ation from them may give disastrous results. If the fruit 
is used with much water clinging to it, it will of course 
require longer boiling than as here given for drained 
fruit. 

The pulp of fruit used for jellies may be mixed with 
an equal portion of fresh fruit, and used for jams. 

Currant Jelly. 

Pick the currants just before using them. Wash the 
bunches, if they need washing, and drain. Pick the cur- 
rants from the stems, put into the kettle, and cook ten 
minutes, or until soft, crushing with the wooden spoon. 
When ready, pour into a pointed jelly bag, which is best 
made of felt (if you wish clear jelly), and hang to drain, 
— do not squeeze. When the juice is ready, measure it 
and the sugar as directed, cook the juice ten minutes, then 
put the sugar in, let boil up well, strain, and put into 
tumblers. 

The currants may be simply crushed, and the juice ex- 
tracted for jelly, without previous cooking. 

Apple Jelly. 

Perfect, red, acid apples are the best, no matter what 
variety. Cut the apples into eighths, and use both par- 
ings and cores, as they improve the color and flavor of 
the jelly. Put three quarts of the cut-up apples in the 
preserving kettle, and pour over them one quart of boil- 
ing water, cook rapidly until the apples are soft, re- 
move, and pour at once into a cheesecloth bag. When 
cool enough, squeeze out all the liquid possible, and 
pour into a white wool bag, and hang up to drain. 
When the liquid is ready, boil until a few drops on a 
plate will show signs of jelling, then put in the sugar, 
which was measured when the juice was put to cook and 
which measures three-fourths as much. The sugar must 



156 HOUSEHOLD SCIENCE. 

be set in the oven, and kept from burning- and melting - 
until hot enough to hiss when put into the juice. Let boil 
up well, keep the jelly skimmed all the time, take the 
glasses from the hot water, and fill them. 
Home-Made Vinegar. 

Use the squeezed apples, boil up with water, strain, 
cool, and add a little sugar. Set in a warm place and 
cover with cheese cloth. Examine occasionally, and if 
not working, add a little more sweetening. 
Crabapple Jelly. 

It is very convenient to make this jelly when making 
crabapple butter. Select apples with perfect cores as 
well as skins. Put to cook in water just sufficient to 
show through as you look down on the apples. When 
the crabapples are soft, with a granite ware cup dip off 
juice enough for a few glasses of jelly, let drip through 
the jelly bag, measure, heat the sugar, boil the juice, and 
proceed as before in apple jelly, except do not let cook- 
too much, as it jells very readily. 
Grape Jelly. 

Wild grapes, just after they turn, make a fine jelly, 
both in appearance and flavor. Cultivated grapes will 
jell just before ripe, when ripe, and even after having 
been stored for weeks, but stored grapes will give a jelly 
that is of a dark color, and not transparent. 

Wash the grapes on the stem, drain, and stem them. 
Put in a stone jar without water, set in a pan of water, 
and cover closely. Let cook until the skins* break, and 
the pulp is soft. Take from fire, pour into the jelly bag, 
and let drain. Measure the liquid and an equal amount 
of sugar. Put the sugar in the oven, and the liquid over 
the fire, boil twenty minutes. Then add the sugar hissing 
hot, let boil about two minutes, and pour into the hot 
tumblers. 
Green Wild Grape Jelly. 

Make same as any grape jelly, using wild grapes when 
just ready to turn. 



JELLIES. 157 

Quince Jelly. 

See that the quinces are perfectly clean, quarter and 
core them, but do not pare. Cut in small pieces, and put 
to cook in just enough cold water to cover them. Cook 
until soft. Drain through a white flannel bag', but do 
not squeeze. Measure the juice, and measure either 
three-fourths as much sugar or an equal amount, as you 
please. Put the juice in a porcelain lined or granite ware 
kettle over the fire, and put the sugar in a basin in the 
oven. Let the juice boil hard fifteen minutes, then put 
the sugar in hissing hot, let boil five minutes more, and 
try it to ascertain whether it will jell. It may need to 
boil a little more, but twenty minutes rapid boiling is 
usually enough. 

Quinces are not a very satisfactory fruit for jelly when 
used alone. They jell with difficulty, making a syrupy 
rather than a perfect jelly. 

Raspberry and Currant Jelly. 

Use one-third raspberry and two-thirds currant, and 
make same as currant jelly. 

Cranberry and Apple Jelly. 

Wash and look over one quart of cranberries, put to 
cook in a granite or porcelain kettle with three-fourths 
of a pint of boiling water, cover closely and cook five 
minutes. Stir and mash with a wooden spoon, turn into 
a jelly bag with apples prepared as for jelly. Use three- 
fourths as much apple as cranberry juice, and add as 
much sugar as you have fruit juice. Cook five minutes 
and turn into glasses. 

Class Rule. 

Two cups of cranberries. 

Three-fourths of a cup of water. Cook until soft. 

Three cups of sliced apples. 

Three-fourths of a cup of water. Cook until soft. 



158 HOUSEHOLD SCIENCE. 

Drain through a jelly bag together. Use an equal 
amount of sugar and fruit juice. Cook five minutes and 
put into glasses. 

Rhubarb and Apple Jelly. 

Wash clean and cut into pieces two quarts of rhubarb 
and one quart of good cooking apples. Add the grated 
yellow rind of a lemon and one and one-half cups of 
water. Cook covered until both rhubarb and lemon are 
soft, then drain through cheesecloth. Measure the juice, 
and for each pint of it use three-fourths of a pint of 
sugar. Put the juice over the fire and boil rapidly for 
twenty minutes. Put the sugar in the oven, and add it 
hissing hot. When it boils, turn the jelly into glasses, 
if it jells on trial, otherwise boil a few minutes longer. 

Strawberry and Currant Jelly. 

Use equal parts of strawberry and currant, and make 
same as currant jelly, mixing the fruit before cooking. 

Currant and Cherry Jelly. 

Use two-thirds currant and one-third cherry, and pro- 
ceed as for currant jelly. 

Apple and Quince Jelly. 

Use two parts apple and one part quince. Remove 
the seeds from the quinces, and cut the fruit in thin 
slices, otherwise proceed as for plain apple jelly. Use 
red apples to give color to the jelly. 

Crabapple and Plum Jelly. 

Use equal parts of plums and crabapples, and proceed 
as in making plain crabapple jelly. It makes a better 
jelly than either fruit alone. 

High-Bush Cranberry and Apple Jelly. 

Cranberry, one part (one cup), one-half cup water, 
cook until cranberries can be easily crushed. Apple, four 
parts (four cups), one cup water, cook until thoroughly 
done. Strain together, cook juice eight minutes after it 



JELLIES. 159 

begins to boil. Add heated sugar, same amount as juice, 
and cook two minutes after beginning to boil. 

Cranberry and Grape Jelly. 

Cranberries, one part, grapes, two parts. Cook same 
as cranberry and apple. Strain together, and cook 
juice eight minutes. Add sugar same amount as juice. 
Cook one minute after beginning to boil. 

Grape and Apple Jelly. 

Use equal parts of grape and apple juice and proceed 
as for any other jelly. 

Apple and Red Raspberry Jelly. 

Use one-third as much red raspberry juice as apple 
juice and proceed as for any jelly. 

Fruit Juices and Syrups. 

A plentiful supply of fruit juices and syrups should 
be put up at canning time for use in desserts, creams, and 
ices when fresh fruit cannot be had. To make fruit 
juices of grapes, strawberries, raspberries, or currants, 
measure the prepared fruit, and put to cook in about one- 
fourth as much water as there is fruit. Cook and strain 
the fruit as for jelly. Put the juice over the fire, let boil 
rapidly for five minutes after it begins to boil, put into 
hot sterilized jars, filling them brimming full, and seal. 

Fruit Syrup. 

Make in exactly the same way as fruit juice, except 
boil twenty minutes, and add an equal amount of sugar 
five minutes before removing from the fire. If there is 
not water enough, the syrup may in some cases jell. 

Grape Juice. 

Five pounds concord grapes picked from the stems. 
Cook in a porcelain lined preserving kettle, having put 
over them three pints of cold water. When sufficiently 
cooked, strain the juice through a bag made of cheese- 



160 HOUSEHOLD SCIENCE. 

cloth. Add one pound of granulated sugar. Bring the 
juice thus prepared to a boil, bottle, and seal. 

MARMALADES. 

Marmalades may be made of the entire fruit, or of 
equal parts of fresh cooked fruit and the pulp from 
which jelly has been made. In either case, rub the 
fruit pulp through a granite ware puree sieve with a 
wooden pestle. Put over the fire, and let cook until it 
is quite thick, then add three-fourths as much sugar as 
there was of the pulp, and cook until it is again thick and 
glassy in appearance, then pour into sterilized vessels, and 
when cold cover with paraffine. Jams and marmalades 
will usually be found much better in quality when made 
by gently simmering the fruit until almost sufficiently 
cooked before adding the sugar. 

Peach Marmalade. 

Cover the bottom of a wire basket with peaches, plunge 
into boiling water for a minute, put into cold water a 
little while, then drain and peel the skins off with a silver 
knife. Cut the peaches in halves. Remove the stones, 
and crack a few of them, as they will improve the flavor 
of the fruit if cooked with the peaches. Cook the peaches 
in a little water until soft, then mash them and evapo- 
rate the water until the mixture is thick. Now add the 
sugar, and cook until it thickens again and has a glassy 
surface. Pick out the pits before mashing. 

Rhubarb Marmalade. 

Prepare the rhubarb, cut into lengths, and put in a 
stone jar. Set the jar in a pan of water in the oven, 
cover it, and let cook until the rhubarb is tender. Then 
mash every particle of it fine, and to a gallon jar of the 
uncooked rhubarb add the grated yellow rind and the 
juice of two lemons. Mix the grated rind with the 
sugar. Set the rhubarb in a porcelain lined or granite 
ware kettle on the range, and cook until thick. Use 



MARMALADES. 161 

same amount of sugar as rhubarb. The rhubarb can as 
well be cooked in the ordinary way, but is a little more 
delicate this way. 

Rhubarb and Apple Marmalade. 

Make in the same way as rhubarb marmalade, except 
use one-third as much apple as there is rhubarb, and 
leave out the lemons. 

Raspberry Marmalade. 

Soft juicy fruits, as raspberries, blackberries, etc., can 
be made into marmalades, without the addition of fresh 
fruit, after draining in the jelly bag. Simply put 
through the sieve to remove the seeds. 

Grape Marmalade. 

Prepare the grapes for cooking, pu t into the preserv- 
ing kettle, and cook until soft, then mash through the 
sieve, leaving skins and seeds. Put these into a bowl, 
pour a little boiling water over them, stir up, strain this 
into the pulp, and cook as before. Measure the pulp, 
and use an equal amount of sugar. 

Tomato Butter. 

Weigh five pounds of ripe tomatoes and half as much 
sugar, either white or brown. Scald and pare the to- 
matoes, take out the hard part, and cook the tomatoes 
until soft, then strain through a puree sieve. Put the 
pulp over the fire, and add to it one cup of good vinegar. 
Boil until quite thick, then add the sugar and boil again 
until it thickens. Slice two lemons and cook with it, 
after straining through the puree sieve. 

Green tomatoes may be used in the same way. 
Tomato Butter— Class Rule. 

One cup of cooked tomato. 

One cup of sugar. 

Three thin slices of lemon. 

Two teaspoonfuls of vinegar. 



162 HOUSEHOLD SCIENCE. 

The vinegar may be left out and only three-fourths of 
a cup of sugar used. 

Apple Marmalade. 

Pare, core, and quarter tart apples. Place in a pre- 
serving kettle with water enough to just show through 
the fruit. Cook until thick, stirring occasionally ; then 
add three-fourths as much hot sugar as there is of pulp. 
Cook until a thick paste is formed, stirring enough to 
keep from burning, and then add spices to taste. Cook 
only a few minutes, and turn into jars. Cover with pa- 
per or paraffine wax. 

Crabapple Butter. 

When making crabapple jelly, use the nicest of the 
fruit for this, but put the cullings to cook at the same 
time. Use the pulp which is left from the jelly-making, 
and the cullings cooked soft, for marmalade. Force these 
through a granite ware colander with a wooden pestle, 
and boil until quite thick, — almost thick enough to stand 
up when a spoonful is put on a cold plate. Add as 
much sugar as there is pulp, and cook until the wooden 
spoon will rest on the top of the cooking marmalade 
without sinking, then put into a clean stone jar, cover the 
top with hot paraffine, and tie a paper over this. Keep 
in a cool, dry place. 

FRUIT PRESERVES. 

Bv the word "preserves," we usually understand a 
fruit preserved in sugar, although, in its general sense, 
the word means preserving by other means as well. 
Fruits preserved in sugar are less wholesome than fresh 
or canned fruits, on account of their extreme sweet- 
ness. So much sugar is used in tea and coffee and other 
ways that the body usually has all it needs without the use 
■of preserves or cake to any great extent. In preserves, 
the fruit acids seem to be so overcome by the sugar that 
they exert a less beneficial effect than when the fruit 



PRESERVES. 163 

is taken raw, or cooked, and simply sugar enough to 
sweeten it is used. 

Melted paraffine is a good covering for preserves, but 
there should be a paper tied over the top of the jar to 
exclude the dust. The paraffine will prevent evaporation 
to a great extent, and keep them moist on top, even in a 
warm atmosphere. It is better to heat the paraffine, 
and pour it over, than to put a piece on top of the pre- 
serves to melt, as the heating kills any germs which may 
be on the wax. In making preserves, the fruit and 
sugar must be cooked together long enough to thoroughly 
dissolve the sugar, and prevent it recrystalizing. They 
should not be boiled together longer than necessary, be- 
cause the sugar loses so much of its sweetening power. 
Preserves and jellies should be kept in a dry, cool place. 

All solid fruits, such as peaches, pears, etc., should be 
ccoked almost done before the sugar is added. Weigh 
the fruit before cooking, and use almost an equal amount 
of sugar. After adding the sugar, cook until the syrup 
formed from the fruit juice and sugar is as thick as honey. 
Put the fruit carefully into the jar, and pour the liquid 
over it. 

When soft fruits, such as berries, are preserved, it is 
impossible to keep them whole unless great care is ex- 
ercised. It is better to boil the syrup until thick enough, 
and cook the berries in it just long enough to sterilize 
them, and evaporate the juice which exudes as they enter 
the boiling liquid. 

Tomatoes, when preserved, should be cooked in the 
syrup. Ground cherries are also better treated in this 
way. Quinces are sometimes preserved by cooking until 
tender, and putting in a sterilized stone jar, a layer of 
quince and a layer of sugar, using equal amounts of each. 
The object in doing this is to have a lighter colored prod- 
uct. The quinces must be watched, and if they begin 
to ferment they must be boiled, as they are not certain 
to keep, preserved in this way. One-third as much sweet 



J 64 HOUSEHOLD SCIENCE. 

apple as quince may be used in quince preserves without 
deteriorating the product. 

To Preserve Cherries. 

Stone the cherries. For each quart of cherries measure 
one and one-half pints of sugar. Put the sugar in a 
saucepan, and pour over it half as much boiling water as 
there is sugar. Cook until the syrup is thick, then put 
in juice and cherries, and skim as it cooks until the 
cherries are transparent. Skim out the fruit into glasses, 
and when the syrup is thick as honey, pour it over them. 
Cherries have a better flavor if some of the pits are cooked 
with them. Measure the cherries before stoning, if pre- 
ferred sweeter. 

To Preserve Strawberries. 

Strawberries, raspberries, and all soft fruits are pre- 
served in the same way as cherries, except use equal 
parts of sugar and fruit where it is more acid than 
cherries. 

To Preserve Pears and Peaches. 

In preserving firm fruits, as some peaches and pears, 
put them into boiling water and cook slowly and covered 
until easily pierced with a toothpick, then remove, and 
drain; add sugar to the juice or liquid in which the fruit 
was cooked, and, when thick, put the fruit into it, let boil 
up, and put carefully into the glasses. Peaches have a 
better flavor when a portion of the pits are cracked and 
cooked with them, and .pears are improved by the addi- 
tion of a little ginger root or cinnamon bark boiled with 
them. Use a piece an inch long to each glass. The 
liquid must be thick before taking from the fire. 

To Preserve Sweet Apples. 

Use a sliced lemon to every dozen apples, and cook 
with the apples to give flavor. Pare, core, and quarter 
the apples, and put them and the sliced lemon in sufficient 
boiling water to cover them. Let cook, covered, Until the 



PRESERVES. 165 

apples can be easily pierced with a toothpick or broom 
straw, then pour off most of the liquid, and set the kettle 
where the contents will boil slowly. Measure the liquid 
poured off, and add nearly as much sugar. Cook the 
syrup thus formed until nearly as thick as honey, then 
pour over the fruit in kettle, cook ten minutes longer, 
or until the syrup is again thick as honey, and pour out 
into glasses. 

Quince and Apple Preserves. 

Use two parts apple and one part quince. Cook as 
sweet-apple preserves, except cook the quince until ten- 
der before adding the apples. 

Tomato Preserves. 

Use a small tomato. — the peach tomato is good. Take 
equal parts of tomato and sugar. Use one and one-halt 
tablespoonfuls of ginger to each gallon of preserves. 
Make a syrup with the sugar, ginger, and a little water. 
When it boils up well, put in the tomatoes and cook until 
they are done, then skim the tomatoes into jars, boil the 
syrup until thick as honey, and pour over the tomatoes. 
After three days, drain the syrup off and boil again. 

Peach Preserves. 

Prepare the peaches in the same way as for marmalade 
(page 160), but be careful not to break them. Cook 
in a syrup made of equal parts of sugar and water. Put 
in only a few peaches at a time and keep them whole. 
Put peaches into glasses, boil syrup down until as thick 
as honey, and pour over them. 

Preserved Pineapple. 

Pare the pineapples, and with a sharp-pointed knife 
dig out the eyes, cut the pineapple in slices an eighth of 
an inch thick, cover with hot water, and cook slowly 
until tender, then remove the pineapple, and add as 
much sugar as juice (the juice should evaporate one- 
half), let boil until the sugar is dissolved, then add the 



166 HOUSEHOLD SCIENCE. 

pineapple again, and let cook until the pineapple is trans- 
parent, and the syrup thick as honey. Put into glasses 
and cover with paraffine. 

Watermelon-Rind Preserves. 

Select rind from a thick-rind melon, remove the red 
inner portion, and pare off the green outer part, cut into 
small pieces, and cook in boiling water until transparent, 
then skim out and put into a syrup, and add, for each 
pint of the syrup and melon together, one sliced lemon. 
Cook until the lemon is tender and the syrup is thick 
as honey. Put into a jar and tie a paper over, or cover 
with paraffine. 

Preserved Citron. 

Proceed in same way as for watermelon-rind preserves, 
except parboil and drain them. 

Preserved Plums. 

Prick the skins, to prevent breaking, or scald and re- 
move them if desired. Make a syrup of equal parts of 
water and sugar, and when boiling put in a few plums 
and let cook until heated through, skim out, and put in a 
jar. When all are cooked, set aside until next day, then 
tie a piece of cheesecloth over the jar, drain off the juice, 
and boil this down a little, and pour over the fruit. Re- 
peat this three times or more, and the last time empty the 
jar, and put the plums in the syrup, and let boil up, then 
put into the jar again very carefully, and pour the boiling 
liquid over them. 

Candied Orange and Lemon Peel. 

Cut the peels into eighths, if convenient. Cook in boil- 
ing water until transparent. Skim from the water into 
syrup made with equal parts of water and sugar, and 
cook until the syrup is thick as honey, remove the peel, 
and dry on a plate. Use both peel and syrup for flavor- 
ins: desserts. 



PICKLING. 167 

FRUIT JAMS. 

Fruit jams are made in the same way as marmalades, 
except that the fruit is simply mashed, and the seeds 
and the skins are left in it. 

Rhubarb Jam No. 1. 

Seven pounds rhubarb, three and one-half pounds 
sugar, two impeded lemons, sliced very thin and cut fine. 
The rhubarb is peeled, cut in inch pieces, stewed, with 
one-half cup water, until it is a pulp. Add sugar and 
lemons, and boil until it is of the consistency of jam. 

Rhubarb Jam No. 2. 

Wash rhubarb clean, peel, and cut into lengths. Put 
to cook in just enough water to prevent burning. Cook 
until perfectly soft, mash to a pulp, and continue the 
cooking until it is quite thick. Stir to prevent scorching. 
Measure by the eye as much sugar as there is rhubarb, 
and add a teaspoon ful of ground ginger to each pint. 
Add this and the sugar, well mixed, to the rhubarb, and 
cook until again thick, then put into jars, and, when 
cool, cover with hot parafrme. 




Pickling. 

For pickles a vinegar of some kind is necessary. Cider 
vinegar is perfectly wholesome and good flavored when 
made from good apples, and may be wisely used, though 
a scum will sometimes rise on the pickles made with it. 
There is in the market a grape vinegar also, a red and 
white wine vinegar, and a vinegar made in the manu- 
facture of beer, known as "malt vinegar.'' Vinegar may 
be made by simply sweetening boiled water and allowing 
it to set in a warm place, but this is inferior to fruit 



168 HOUSEHOLD SCIENCE. 

vinegar. If one wishes a vinegar which is colorless and 
imparts no flavor of its own to the articles preserved in 
it, white wine vinegar will he found preferable. Articles 
pickled in this vinegar are remarkably free from scum, 
also. Some housekeepers regard a clean horseradish leaf 
laid in the jar on top of the pickles a safeguard against 
scum and other impurities. 

Watermelon-Rind Pickles. 

Pare the rind and cut into slices as wide as the rind 
is thick. Put the rind to cook in boiling water in a 
granite ware saucepan, using one-half a level teaspoonful 
of salt to each quart of water, and cook until it becomes 
translucent. Drain off the water, put the rind into sweet 
pickle prepared in the manner given below, and let boil 
half an hour. Tie a cheesecloth tightly over the top of 
the jar, and set away. 

To Prepare Vinegar for Watermelon-Rind Pickles. 

For each quart of good vinegar use three pints of best 
brown sugar, and a cup of mixed spices, using more 
cinnamon in proportion than allspice and cloves, leaving 
out the bay leaf, unless liked. Boil these together and 
pour over the pickles. Leave the spice bag in the jar, 
and keep down with a small plate, or something of the 
kind. Do not have the vinegar too strong, but just good, 
acid vinegar. 

Cucumber Pickles. 

Fill a gallon jar with small, freshly gathered cucum- 
bers, sprinkle lightly with salt, fill the jar with boiling wa- 
ter, and let stand until cold. Drain the water from the cu- 
cumbers, put them in a preserving kettle with equal por- 
tions of cider vinegar and water, and heat to boiling 
point. Then pour off the liquid. Put the cucumbers in 
the jar, add three small, sweet peppers, and half a dozen 
whole cloves. Cover with cold vinegar, and put away. 
In a day or two the vinegar should be again scalded 
and poured over the pickles. 



PICKLING. 169 

Sweet Cucumber Pickles. 

To one cup of vinegar add one-half cup sugar. Put in 
this two teaspoonfuls of mixed spices, tied in a cheesecloth 
bag. Bring to the boiling point, and turn over the pickles. 
Repeat the heating for three different days, cover with a 
horseradish leaf, and tie a cloth over the jar, leaving the 
spice bag in it. 

Ripe Cucumber Pickles. 

Make same as watermelon-rind pickles. 

Green Tomato Pickles. 

Use the same proportion of tomatoes, sugar, spices, and 
celery as in the chow chow, and proceed in the same 
way, except slice the tomatoes instead of chopping them. 

Sweet Tomato Pickles. 

Pare one pint of firm, green tomatoes, put on the stove 
in equal parts of water and vinegar, and let simmer twen- 
ty-five minutes. Make a syrup of one cup of vinegar 
and one-half cup of sugar. Put into it three-fourths of an 
inch of ginger root, and one inch of cinnamon. Drain 
the tomatoes from the plain vinegar and water, put into 
the syrup, and let simmer forty-ffae minutes, then put 
into jars and set away. 

Chili Sauce. 

Three cups of cooked tomato or six large tomatoes, 
three ripe or three green peppers, two onions (medium 
size), two tablespoonfuls of salt, one cup of sugar, one 
tablespoonful of cinnamon, three cups of vinegar. Chop 
the onions, tomatoes and peppers separately until very 
fine, put the ingredients all together, except the sugar 
and cinnamon. Cook until it thickens some, then add the 
sugar and cinnamon and cook again, bottle and set away 
for use. 

Spiced Tomatoes. 

The small, yellow tomato is the best. Put a quart of 
vinegar over the fire. Tie in a piece of cheesecloth three 



170 HOUSEHOLD SCIENCE. 

pepper-corns, half an ounce of whole cloves, and a two- 
inch piece of ginger root. Weigh the tomatoes, and add 
fo the vinegar with the bag of spices half as many pounds 
of sugar as there are pf tomatoes. Prick the tomatoes, 
and when the vinegar boils again, put them in and cook 
until they look clear. Take the tomatoes out, boil the 
liquid half an hour longer, pour over the tomatoes in 
the jar, put the spice bag on top, tie cheesecloth over, and 
set away with a thick covering of paper on top. 

Spiced Plums. 

Make same as spiced grapes, except cook the plums 
whole and leave the pits in. 

Spiced Grapes. 

Five pounds of grapes, one pint vinegar, one tablespoon- 
ful of allspice, four pounds of sugar, one tablespoonful 
of cloves, one tablespoonful of cinnamon, one-half table- 
spoonful of mace. Pulp grapes and heat slowly about 
five minutes. Turn into a coarse sieve and press pulps 
through. Place skins with this pulp and weigh the 
whole. Make a syrup of the sugar, vinegar, and spice. 
Boil the fruit in this syrup one-half hour, or until very 
thick. 

Pickled Cabbage. 

Select crisp, white cabbage, and chop fine. To each 
quart of chopped cabbage add a tablespoonful each of 
salt, white mustard seed, and sugar, with pepper to 
taste. Put the mixture in a jar, and cover with cold 
cider vinegar. Scatter half a dozen cloves over the top 
of the cabbage, cover the jar, and in a few days the 
pickle will be ready for use. May let come to a boil be- 
fore putting into jar. 

Pickled Peaches or Other Fruits. 

To one cup of vinegar add three-fourths of a cup of 
sugar, or, if wanted very sweet, one cup. Three inches of 
stick cinnamon, one teaspoonful of whole cloves, one tea- 



PICKLING. 171 

spoonful of mustard seed, one-half teaspoonful of all- 
spice whole, one-half teaspoonful of pepper whole, one 
inch of ginger root. Put the spices in a hag, and heat 
with the vinegar, and pour over the fruit as directed for 
cucumbers. Grapes on the stem are very nice treated 
in the same manner. 

Pickled Berries. 

Seven pounds of berries, three pounds of sugar, one 
and one-half pints of vinegar, two two-inch sticks of cinna- 
mon, one and one-half tablespoonfuls of allspice, three- 
fourths of a tablespoonful of cloves. Boil up sugar, vine- 
gar, and spices together. Add the berries, and let come 
to a boil. 

Chow Chow. 

One-half peck of green tomatoes, one-half cup of salt, 
three small onions, one-half of a large head of celery, two 
quarts of chopped cauliflower, one-fourth of a medium 
head of cabbage, one cup sugar, one-half teaspoonful of 
white pepper, two teaspoonfuls of ground cinnamon, two 
teaspoonfuls of ground allspice, two teaspoonfuls of 
ground mustard, two pints of good vinegar. Chop the 
tomatoes fine, and let stand over night. Drain the liquid 
off, chop the other ingredients. Mix the sugar, salt, and 
spices. Use a porcelain lined or granite ware kettle for 
cooking. Put in a layer of tomatoes, then a layer of the 
other ingredients mixed, alternating thus until all are 
used. Put the mixture of salt, etc., into the vinegar, 
heat boiling hot, pour over the contents of the kettle, and 
cook until the tomatoes are tender, skim into a jar, and 
cook more in the same liquid. 



CHAPTER XIV. 

CONDIMENTS, SPICES AND FLAVORS. 

One of the objects of cooking is to develop flavors, as 
in broiling a steak, roasting coffee, etc. Here the skill of 
the cook is tested, and a knowledge of the intensity and 
continuance of heat is required. 

In cereals, dry beans, etc., the flavor depends largely 
on the cooking, though a few additions are made, as salt, 
pepper, etc. In order to use such common things as salt 
and pepper wisely, the taste must be educated. There is 
but one object in using such things, and that is to give 
pleasure to the eater. The Germans have well named 
them ''enjoyment givers." We are so constituted that we 
cannot long enjoy anything fully if it is used in excess, 
hence the necessity for both those who cook and those 
who eat to train themselves in enjoying the flavor of the 
article itself, rather than the salt and pepper or other 
condiments or spices showered over it. 

Flavors should always be delicate. A flavoring ma- 
terial which is added to a food while cooking is less 
harmful than that added at the table, because the wise 
cook uses only enough to prevent the food being in- 
sipid, — a sufficient amount to make the mouth water, — ■ 
while over-seasoned food weakens digestion by over-stim- 
ulating the secretive glands, and irritating the delicate 
membranes of the digestive tract. 

There are many substances besides salt and pepper 
which, added to food, give variety of flavor, or a better 
flavor to an insipid food. These are usually classed un- 
der two heads, — condiments and spices. Those which are 
used with meats are called "condiments." Those which are 
combined with sugfar and used with fruits are called 



CONDIMENTS, SPICKS AND FLAVORS. 173 

"spices." Many of these flavoring materials are of 
vegetable origin. Among them are cloves, allspice, cin- 
namon, cassia, nutmeg, mace, pepper, caraway seed, celery 
seed, bay leaves, summer savory, parsley, thyme, sage, 
sweet marjoram, mint, tarragon, capers and curry pow- 
der. These are simply aromatic, but some are both aro- 
matic and pungent, as mustard, horseradish, and ginger. 
Salt is chief among condiments. A little of this heightens 
the flavor of almost any food. 

Cloves are the flower bud of an evergreen tree indigen- 
ous to the Molucca or Spice islands. The clove tree is 
cultivated in the West Indies and Guiana, but the cloves 
off trees from there are less aromatic than those of the 
Spice islands. 

Allspice is a native of the West Indies. It is the green 
berries of the tree, dried in a rather low heat. 

Cinnamon is a bark stripped from the young shoots of a 
tree allied to the laurel. The inner bark only is used. It 
is very thin and papery in appearance, and dries in small 
tight rolls, and has a decidedly pleasant and spicy taste. 
Cinnamon, like most spices, comes from the East In- 
dia islands. Cassia bark resembles cinnamon a little, but 
the hark is very much thicker, the rolls shorter and the 
taste much less pleasant, and not nearly so strong. 
Cassia comes from China. In the ground spices, one must 
depend upon the taste to distinguish between cassia and 
cinnamon. 

The nutmeg tree, a native of the East Indies, is grown 
principally in the island of Banda. The fruit is of a 
yellow color, about the size of a pear. It is a drupe or 
stone fruit, and the kernel is the portion used as a spice. 
Mace is similar to nutmeg, being derived from the same 
fruit. It is the second coat which covers the nutmeg. It 
is a thin membranous substance divided in such a way 
as to give a lace like effect. It is used in the same way as 
nutmeg. 



174 HOUSEHOLD SCIENCE. 

Pepper is a native of the East Indies, the island of 
Penang producing it in largest quantity. The cultivation 
of pepper has been introduced into the West Indies. Pep- 
per is the fruit of a vine, and is gathered before it is ripe, 
which gives a wrinkled appearance when dry. White and 
black pepper are made from the same berry, the white 
having the dark outer covering removed before it is 
ground. White pepper is preferable for all uses in which 
black or white pepper are chosen. Red pepper or cayenne 
pepper is very pungent. It is the product of a species of 
capsicum. Paprica is also a product of capsicum, the 
cayenne pepper being the strongest, and the paprica the 
mildest, variety. Our garden pepper may well be sub- 
stituted for both. The common red pepper is very strong, 
and what is known as "sweet pepper" is very much milder. 

The caraway plant grows wild in Europe and Asia. It 
is cultivated for its aromatic seeds, which are used for 
spicing cookies, cheese, and rye bread. 

Celery is a plant very susceptible to cultivation and 
the tender white stalks found in our gardens bear little 
resemblance to the wild celery of Europe. There are few 
plants which are so near wholly edible as celery. The 
dainty green tops are used for garnishes especially with 
salads. The coarser green parts are used with the roots 
for flavoring soups. The tougher white parts make a 
delicious cream soup, while the tender white portions are 
delicious just as they are. The seeds of celery are used to 
flavor soups, croquettes, etc. 

Bay leaves are the dried leaves of a shrub growing in 
the countries bordering the Mediterranean sea. Bay 
leaves are used for flavoring soups, pickles and some- 
times stews. 

Summer savory is a hardy annual which grows wild in 
Southern Europe, and is cultivated in our gardens. It is 
used mostly for seasoning sausages and gravies. 



CONDIMENTS, SPICES AND FLAVORS. 



175 



Parsley has been much improved by cultivation since it 
left its native Sardinia. It is much used for seasoning 
soups and salads, and is a very great favorite as a gar- 
nish. The curly variety is preferable. 

Thyme is a pungent aromatic plant, and is used for 
flavoring soups. 

Sage is a plant with light green leaves, common in 
our gardens, and is often freely used in flavoring sausages 
and dressing for fowls. 

Sweet marjoram grows wild in Spain and is cultivated 
in the United States and Europe. It is a pungent and 
aromatic plant of the mint family, used mostly in soups. 
Spearmint is a member of the mint family, used much 
in cookery, and is relished in a mint sauce for a lamb roast. 
It gives piquancy to an ice. Mint may be used also in 
making a sauce for fish or fowl, but is not so generally 
used in this way. 

Tarragon is a small aromatic plant, native of Liberia. 
It is used for flavoring vinegars, which, in turn, give va- 
riety in salad dressings. 

Capers are the unopened flowers of a trailing plant, 
which, like tarragon, is a native of Africa. It also grows 
wild in Southern Europe. It is cultivated in France. The 
small green berries only are used. These are preserved in 
salt and vinegar, and are used in salads and meat sauces. 
The smaller capers are best. 

Curry powder is a manufactured condiment. Many of 
the above described ingredients enter into its composition, 
and all are finely ground and thoroughly mixed. 

Mustard is a common plant, and some varieties of it 
grow plentifully in neglected places in our own country. 
There are two varieties of mustard, — the black and the 
white. The black mustard has small black seeds. The 
white variety has larger yellow seeds. The seeds of both 
varieties are used whole in making pickles, but the white 
are preferable in most cases. Ground mustard is desirable 



176 HOUSEHOLD SCIENCE. 

for seasoning salads. This is often adulterated, but one 
can judge whether genuine by the dull yellow appearance, 
and the very pungent odor of pure mustard. When good 
mustard is wet with cold water, it will affect the eyes, 
like peeling a raw onion. 

Horseradish is a well-known plant, possessing a very 
pungent odor. It can be grated in its season, bottled in 
vinegar, and kept tightly corked for use later in the year. 

Ginger is used mostly in pickles, beverages and desserts. 
The young and succulent roots are preserved in sugar or 
dried. Powdered ginger should be free from woody fiber. 
Ginger comes from both the East and West Indies. 

Many of these aromatic plants can be easily grown in 
our kitchen gardens, and it is far wiser to grow these than 
to depend on the market for every bouquet of herbs and 
all salad seasoning we may wish. 

References: Food Products of the World — Green — pp. 83- 
103; U. S. Dept. Agr.. Farmers' Bulletin No. 122, pp. 16-18. 



CHAPTEE XV. 

MEATS. 

Animal foods contain practically the same classes of 
nutrients as are found in vegetable foods. The protein in 
meat differs from that in vegetables in three ways. It is 
more abundant, more easily digestible, and very different 
in appearance. This compound in meat is considered un- 
der the three heads of albuminoids, gelatinoids, and ex- 
tractives. The albuminoids are the chief flesh formers of 
meat. They are capable of forming muscle, tendon and fat, 
and of yielding energy in the form of heat and muscular 
strength. So far as scientists have yet learned, gelatinoids 
cannot be said to change to the composition of albumin- 
oids, but they do protect the albuminoids from being con- 
sumed. The extractives give flavor to the meat and pre- 
sumably tone to the system. That these cannot build tis- 
sue nor furnish heat to the body is believed to be an estab- 
lished fact. Scientists and medical men agree that they do 
serve a purpose, but just what that is they cannot explain. 
The extractives seem to exert some action on the nervous 
system which aids the bod}- in making use of the food con- 
sumed. Scientists are of the opinion that "flavoring ma- 
terials and an agreeable appearance do not directly in- 
crease thoroughness of digestion, but serve to stimulate 
the digestive organs to greater activity as regards the 
actual amount digested. This stimulation is probably not 
of so great moment as is commonly supposed. Meat that 
has been extracted with water so as to be entirely taste- 
less has been found in actual experiment to be as quickly 
and completely digested as an equal weight of meat 



178 HOUSEHOLD SCIENCE. 

roasted in the usual way."* There seems to be inherent 
in man a desire for flavor. Dr. Livingston tells us that 
the savages in the wilds of Africa throw the meat over 
the coals long enough to sear it a little, then swallow it, 
hot, but it has a different flavor, though nearly raw. 

The value of meat for food depends in part upon the 
proportion of protein to fat. While the protein can take 
the place of fats and carbohydrates, nothing else can do 
the work of the proteids. It is not wise to allow the pro- 
teids to take the place of the other elements of food, be- 
cause the changing necessary to fit them for use entails too 
much work on the organs, and it is substituting the more 
expensive for the much cheaper food substances. Neither 
is it wise to attempt to wholly substitute vegetable protein 
for animal protein. The nutrients in vegetables are en- 
closed in woody fibre which resists the action of the diges- 
tive juices, and probably oft-times hastens the food along 
the digestive tract too rapidly, owing to its irritating ac- 
tion on the lining membrane of the intestines, to insure 
complete digestibility. The fat in meat performs the 
same office as starch, sugar, and digested cellulose in vege- 
table foods. It forms fatty tissue, or serves as fuel, and 
yields energy in the form of heat and muscular strength. 
There is no perceptible difference in the digestibility of 
animal and vegetable fats. Animal foods contain much 
more fat than vegetable foods. 

The following charts are from "Meats for Farm 
Use." — Andrew Boss, Associate Professor of Agricul- 
ture, University of Minnesota. 

Beef — Uses of Cuts. 

The seven best ribs are used for oven roasts. The 

chuck ribs are used for shoulder steaks, pot roasts and 

boiling pieces, and when from first-class beef animals 

they make good oven roasts. When used for oven roasts 

or steaks, they should be cut parallel to the ribs. For pot 

roasts and boiling pieces they should be cut across the 

*U. S. Department of Agriculture, Farmers' Bulletin No. 34 
—p. 17. 



MEATS. 



179 



ribs. The shoulder is best for boiling- pieces, or pot 
roasts, the neck for mincemeat or stews. The plate is 
used for stewing and is frequently corned. The cross 
ribs make good pot roasts or boiling pieces. The loin is 
usually cut into steaks, though it makes prime roasts and 
is often so used. When cut into steaks, it is customary 
to begin at the back end and cut slices parallel to the line 
N. P. The first seven or eight slices taken off are known 
as sirloin steaks. From the hook points or hip bone for- 
ward to the end of the tenderloin muscle lying on the 
underside of floating ribs, the porterhouse steaks are cut. 
A few slices of tip end sirloin may be cut off the front end 
of the loin just before reaching the rib. The steaks from 

CHUC Kj /=? i BS 



\IUK- -' 




CROSS 7*103 
SHIN- - 

Sid.- of Beef— Names of Cms. 
both butt end and tip end of sirloin are inferior to those 
where the tenderloin lies, and the ones cut from the cen- 
tral part of the loin where the tenderloin is largest are 
superior to all others from the point of tenderness, but in 
flavor and food value they are no better. The rib is 
used for a small roast. The rump is used for roasting, 
corning or pot roasts and is usually cut up into pieces run- 
ning parallel to the line P. O. The upper part of the 
round is used for steaks, the lower part for boiling. The 
lower part of the round is frequently run through a sau- 
sage cutter and made into Hamburg steak. The flank is 
used for stewing, the shank and shin for soup. The 
shank is the better piece because it has more meat usually. 



180 HOUSEHOLD SCIENCE. 

Comparative Value of the Cuts of Beef. 

The loin cut of beef is looked upon as being the 
choicest cut, with the best ribs ranking second. Then 
follow in order the round, chuck ribs, rump, cross ribs, 
shoulder, plate, flank and neck. From the standpoint of 
actual food value, this comparison does not hold good, for 
we find on comparison of the food nutrients in the differ- 
ent cuts that some of the so-called inferior joints are 
really as valuable as the higher-priced and more popular 
portions. The chuck rib, for instance, contains almost 
the same amount of nutrients as the loin, and the nutrients 
are in just as digestible form. The chuck ribs can be 
bought at eight cents per pound when the loin is twelve 
cents per pound. The best ribs at ten cents furnish con- 
siderably less nutritive material than the chuck. The 
round at eight cents supplies even more nutriment than 
any of the fore-mentioned cuts. The rump is also a very 
economical cut to buy when its food value is considered. 
The plate, neck, shank, etc., contain a fair quantity of 
nutrients, but are not so palatable, nor can they be cut 
into steaks and roasts, and are not so popular for this rea- 
son. 

8£ST£MD0F/VEt/c 



MFHECK 



HECK 



■CHiJUTBNt) 
Loin 




FilltT 



HANK SHANK 

SPiH BREAST 

Side of Veal — Names of Cuts. 
Veal Uses of Cuts. 

The shank of veal is used for soups. The best end of 
loin is used for roasts and chops. The scrag end of 
neck is used for boiling. The breast of veal is used for 
stew. The flank is also used for stew. The chump end 



MEATS. 



181 



of loin is used for roasts. The fillet is used for roasts and 
steaks. The neck is used for broth. 

Pork— Uses of Cuts. 

The ham is generally pickled and smoked, though it is 
sometimes cut into pork steak when fresh. The shoulder 
may be either used as steak, cured as ham, or it may be 
ground into sausage meat. The choicest meat is ob- 
tained from the loin. The loin is used as a roast or is cut 
into pork chops. Pork chops are cut parallel to the ribs 
and should be three-eighths to one-half an inch thick. 



Hr\6.K 




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mi Dt>Le 
Side of Pork — Names of Cuts. 



The spare rib is considered a very choice portion when 
broiled in the oven or when stuffed and roasted. The 
back strip of side meat is sometimes made into salt pork, 
but, as it is nearly clear fat, it is best to try it up into lard. 
The middle strip makes a second-class quality of bacon or 
salt pork, but the third or lower strip is considered best 
for this purpose, as it contains a larger proportion of 
lean meat. 

Mutton— Uses of Cuts. 

The loin, which is usually considered the choicest cut 
of mutton, may be used either for an oven roast or for 
mutton chops. When used as an oven roast, it is roasted 
without any further cutting, except to crack the joints in 



182 



HOUSEHOLD SCIENCE. 



the backbone with a cleaver, to facilitate carving- at the 
table. Chops are cut from this joint in slices parallel to 
the line A. K. They should be cut from one-half to 
three-fourths of an inch thick. The rack is considered 
second in quality and is usually cut into chops for broiling 
or pan broiling or braising. 

The chops should lie cut one inch thick, leaving one rib 
in each chop. They should be cut parallel with the ribs 
and cut off at the block with a cleaver. The leg, with- 
out further subdividingf than to remove the tail and 



L*T LDW RAC* 




Sule of Mutton— Names of Cuts. 

scraggy parts is used for oven roasts or for boiling. The 
shoulder should have the joints in the ribs cracked, and 
the ribs themselves broken on the inside at the middle. It 
may then be used for an oven roast if the animal is a 
young one, otherwise it should be used for boiling. The 
neck makes choice mutton broth, and the breast and flank 
may be used in the same way, or they may all be used for 
stews. 



Cuts of Lamb and Their Uses. 

The cuts of lamb are very similar to those of mutton, 
though in some cases they have different names. The 
cuts of lamb are : Neck, shoulder, chuck, breast, saddle 
and leg. The saddle includes the loin and a portion of 



MEATS. 183 

that part known in mutton as rack, and extends from the 
aitch bone nearly to the chuck (sixth or seventh rib). 
The chuck begins about the fourth rib and extends to the 
saddle. 

The neck and all trimmings are used for broth. The 
breast of lamb is usually braised or similarly prepared. 
The saddle is used for an oven roast or cut into chops. 
The chops from the rib portion are called rib chops or 
French chops, and those from the loin are called loin 
chops. Lamb chops are used for broiling. 

The rib piece is sometimes made into a roast known as 
crown of lamb. 

The leg of lamb is used for an oven roast. The shoul- 
der is used in the same way as the leg, though it makes a 
much poorer roast. 

Good Recipe for Corning Beef. 

To every one hundred pounds of beef, weigh out eight 
pounds of ground rock salt if it can be had ; if not, com- 
mon salt may be used. Cover the bottom of the barrel 
with a layer of salt a quarter of an inch deep and then 
pack in a layer of meat as compactly as possible, leaving 
it level on top. Cover this with a layer of salt and a 
layer of meat until all is used, proportioning the layers so 
that the eight pounds of salt will be used up at the same 
time that the hundred pounds of meat is all in. Allow 
the meat to stand in the salt over night. The next day 
dissolve two ounces of saltpetre, four ounces of salera- 
tus and four pounds of sugar in a little warm water and 
turn it over the meat. Add cold water until the meat is 
covered. Put a loose cover or board over the meat and 
weight it down to keep the meat entirely under the brine. 
Keep in a cool, dry cellar. If. at any time, the brine be- 
comes slimy or ropy it should be turned off, the meat 
should be washed and a new brine made. 

BOILING AND STEWING MEATS. 
The term "boiling," as used in cookery, means cooking 



184 HOUSEHOLD SCIENCE. 

in a liquid which is kept at the boiling point. If the nu- 
triment is to be kept in, as in boiled meat, the piece of meat 
should be left intact, so that as little surface as possible be 
exposed, and plunged into boiling water, and when the 
contents of the kettle have again reached the boiling point, 
moved where it will remain near the boiling point, but will 
not boil rapidly. 

When meat is plunged into boiling water the albumen 
near the surface is coagulated, thus forming a coating 
which shuts in the juices somewhat, and as the heat pene- 
trates to the interior of the meat, the juices bathing the tis- 
sues become hot, and when the meat is served, a slice only 
a short distance from the outer surface is found tender 
and juicy, the tiny bundles of fibres having been cooked 
in the natural medium. 

If the object is to have the flavor as nearly as possible 
all in the liquid, as in soups and in meat teas, cut the meat 
in small pieces, soak in plenty of cold water for a time, and 
heat slowly, never boiling, but merely simmering, in order 
that the juices may be drawn out as thoroughly as pos- 
sible. 

In stewing meats, the object is to have the nutriment 
partly in the liquid and partly in the meat. In this case, 
cut the meat into pieces suitable for serving, put into the 
kettle, and pour on a small quantity of hot water, cover 
closely, and allow to cook slowly but unceasingly until 
tender, which will give nice, juicy meat, and gravy of 
good quality. 

Caper Sauce. 

Use mutton soup stock and thicken with butter and 
flour, — one tablespoonful of flour and one tablespoonful 
of butter to one cup of liquid. Put the butter and flour 
into a sauce pan and heat over the fire until the butter 
melts, but not until it browns. Turn into this the cold 
broth, stirring constantly until it boils. Put in capers 



MEATS. 185 

last, a scant one-quarter of a cup to a cup of liquid. 
Serve with boiled mutton. 

Parsley Sauce. 

Make same as above, except put in one generous table- 
spoonful of finely minced parsley instead of capers. Serve 
with boiled mutton. 

To Boil a Leg- of Mutton. 

Remove the outer skin, as this often gives an unpleasant 
flavor. Be careful not to cut the meat while peeling off 
the outer covering. See that the meat is clean, then sear 
the cut surfaces on a hot spider. Have boiling in the 
kettle a quart or three pints of water. Plunge the joint 
into it, and cover closely, allowing the steam to help in 
the cooking. Just the amount of water needed cannot be 
given, because the size of the kettle and the age of the 
meat will influence this matter. Have enough so that 
the meat will not burn, and there will be just enough left 
to make the sauce. Set the kettle over a hot fire until the 
water boils, then move to where it will keep near the boil- 
ing point, but will not boil hard. Boiled meats should be 
salted half an hour before removing from fire. 
Egg- Sauce. 

Make the drawn butter sauce as directed on page 200, 
using mutton broth for the liquid. Season with salt and 
pepper, and add one large or two very small hard-boiled 
eggs, chopped fine. Serve with boiled mutton. 

To Cook Breast of Lamb. 

Remove the outer skin, which is apt to make the meat 
taste woolly if left on, see that the meat is clean and put 
whole into the kettle and stew until the bones will slip, 
then remove them, put the meat in a dripping pan, set it 
in the oven, cover with buttered crumbs, and cook until 
brown and tender. Make a gravy of the broth left in the 
kettle, and serve with the lamb. 



186 HOUSEHOLD SCIENCE. 

Breast of Lamb with Tomato Sauce. 

Proceed same as before until ready to make the gravy, 
then add as much tomato as broth in making the gravy. 

To Cook Sweetbreads. 

Soak in salt and water to make clear and white, then 
cook in boiling water until tender, and let cool in the 
water in which they were cooked. Serve with a mush- 
room sauce or a white sauce. 

To Cook Corned Beef. 

Soak in cold water until sufficiently freshened. Then 
put into a sufficient quantity of boiling water to prevent 
burning. Cook until tender. Cabbage, cauliflower, tur- 
nips, spinach, beans or carrots may be appropriately 
served with corned beef. When one desires, part of the 
water in which the beef is cooking may be poured into 
another kettle, and the vegetables cooked in it. The 
meat flavor which the vegetable takes renders it more 
palatable, and not less wholesome. 

To Boil Ham. 

If the ham is moldy, scrape with a dull knife until 
clean, and saw oft" the bone, if necessary, then soak, skin 
side up, in cold water, wash with brush, wipe dry, and put 
to cook, skin side down, in boiling water. Cook until ten- 
der, usually about twenty minutes to the inch. If to be 
served cold, let remain in water in which it is cooked until 
cold, then skin, slice thin, and serve. Or, after the skin is 
removed, cover with bread crumbs, moisten with sugar 
and vinegar, and brown. If to be served hot, take from 
vessel in which cooked as soon as done, remove the skin, 
slice, and serve. Ham, if from a young animal, ma> r be 
wrapped in dough and baked. 

To Stew a Fowl. 

Cut the fowl into pieces suitable for serving. Put in the 
back, the rib piece, the drumsticks, and all pieces which 
require the longest cooking, in order of their time to 



MEATS. 187 

become tender, put the breast on top, and pour over jnst 
enough hot water to prevent burning while the fowl 
cooks. Cover closely, and when it boils move back where 
it will cook slowly. Salt when nearly done. When done, 
remove the meat, add milk or chicken broth to make 
gravy. 

A small onion and a blade of mace, big as the thumb 
nail, stewed with an old hen, brings out the flavor. Celery 
is next to onion in its ability to mix with things univer- 
sally, and parsley comes next on the list. Celery is prefer- 
able to any other flavoring with boiled chicken or turkey, 
the other is used . for variety. Parsley may always be 
used with stewed chicken with drawn butter sauce. Cel- 
ery, oyster, lemon, or caper sauce is appropriate with 
boiled fowl. 

To Fricassee a Fowl. 

A fricassee differs from a stew in this particular only, 
— the meat is browned before the water is put in the ket- 
tle. 

Veal Pot Pie. 

Cut the veal in medium-sized pieces and simmer in a 
small quantity of water for an hour. Always choose fat 
veal. Pour off most of the w r ater, but leave enough to 
cook dumplings, then thicken and season the poured-off 
broth, lift the dumplings carefully, and pour over them 
the gravy. 

Dumplings. 

Class rule : One-half cup of flour, one-eighth teaspoon- 
ful salt, one level teaspoonful of baking powder, one-quar- 
ter cup of sweet milk, one level teaspoonful of butter. 

Home rule: Two cups of flour, one-half teaspoonful of 
salt, four teaspoonfuls of baking powder, one cup of sweet 
milk, four teaspoonfuls of butter or lard. 

Mix the baking powder with a little of the flour. Rub 
into the remaining flour the butter, add the salt and the 



188 HOUSEHOLD SCIENCE. 

baking powder, then put in the milk, stirring as little as 
possible. Flour the molding' board, turn the dumplings 
onto it. and, without kneading, roll and cut into shapes, 
and put to cook, or drop into kettle from a spoon. 

To Cook Tongue. 

Soak in plenty of cold water until sufficiently fresh- 
ened, then skewer the two ends together and put into boil- 
ing water and cook gently until tender. Remove from 
the water in which it has been cooked, plunge into cold 




Beef Round. 

water, and let lie a few minutes. Then cut the skin on 
the under side and peel it back both ways. Serve with a 
brown tomato sauce made in the following manner : 
Brown together ini the saucepan one and one-half table- 
spoonfuls of butter and two of flour, add one-half a cup of 
brown soup stock, and one-half cup strained tomato, cold. 
Stir constantly until it has boiled a few minutes. Thicken 
with one and one-half tablespoonfuls of flour stirred into 
a little water. Smoked tongue is better than pickled 
tongue. If fresh tongue is used no soaking is neces- 
sary. 



MEATS. 189 

To Prepare a Calf's or Sheep's Head. 

Soak and clean thoroughly, put into boiling salted 
water, and cook until tender. Take off all edible meat, 
and chop with the brains. Season to taste with onions, 
salt and pepper, moisten with white sauce (page 53), 
cover with buttered crumbs, brown in the oven, and serve 
hot. 

To Cook a Pot Roast of Beef. 

Choose a cut which is too tough for an oven roast. The 
crossrib cut is usually so. Sear the cut surfaces, and stew 
in a very little water until tender. Then let the water 
cook entirely out, and brown the meat in the kettle. 







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Last Cut Round Steak. 

BROILING. 

There are several reasons why some articles of food 
should be broiled, or why broiled food should sometimes 
be eaten. One important reason is that some articles of 
food are cooked most perfectly in this way. Another rea- 
son is that man desires variety in the manner of cooking 
his food, as well as in the articles constituting his diet. 
Broiling is a sudden searing and browning of the surface 
of the food. Cooking the food on the outside thus quick- 



190 



HOUSEHOLD SCIENCE. 



ly hardens the albumen, and forms a coating over 
the surface, shutting in the juices, and the seared 
surface is kept intact by frequent turning as the food 
cooks. Broiling can be done over a clear blaze, or on a 
bed of live coals, but the use of the broiler or gridiron 
simplifies the matter very much. Where much broiling 
is done a charcoal burner is desirable, but for the ordinary 
family the light wire broiler or toaster is well adapted to 
the purpose. In order to use such a broiler over the fire 
in the common range or cook stove, have a clear bright 
fire, and open the main clamper, so as to create a good 
draft and allow the escape of smoke. 




Wedge Bone Sirloin of Beef. 

To Broil a Chop or Steak. 

Remove one of the front griddles and place the article 
to be broiled in the broiler over the open fire. Turn 
the broiler frequently to prevent the meat burning, and 
to keep the juices from being forced through the surface, 
and also to cause it to cook evenly on both sides. If the 
drippings from the fat of the meat create a blaze remove 
the broiler a minute until the blaze subsides. A deep 
cover laid over the meat will retain the heat and facilitate 
the broiling. When the fire becomes dull, if coal is used, 
add a sprinkle of fresh coal, replace the griddle-, and use 
the other side of the stove, which, having been protected 



MEATS. 



1<>1 



from the air. will be clear and bright. Both griddles 

should never be removed at once, because, in order to con- 
tinue broiling there must be an opportunity to change the 
broiler frequently to a hot fire. A steak three-quarters of 

an inch thick will cook in eight minutes, and should be 
turned about twenty times. Such a steak, of course, will 
be rare, but Prof. Atwater says that raw meat is more 
quickly and completely digested than meat boiled, roasted, 
or smoked, but the flavor induced by cooking excites the 
secretion of digestive juices, thus facilitating the further 




Short Loin. Beef. 



disintegration in the alimentary canal. The above seems 
an argument in favor of acquiring a taste for rare meat if 
one desires tue best results, as this combines the easy di- 
gestion of the raw meat with the rich appetizing flavor 
developed by cooking. 

Experiment has proven that a steak one an 1 one-half 
inches thick may be successfully broiled in a hot oven if 
seared on both sides before being placed in the oven. It 
should remain in the oven about eight minutes. If a steak- 
is fat, butter does not improve it. 



192 HOUSEHOLD SCIENCE. 

To Pan Broil a Steak or Chop. 

Before broiling a steak in any way, remove the tough 
outer edge, as it is apt to curl, and is better off. Remove 
the outer skin from a mutton chop because the flavor 
is better. • Have a common griddle or spider smoking hot, 
and put the meat on it without grease of any kind. Let 
cook until it loosens from the spider, then turn and sear 
on the other side. After that, turn it very often until it 
is done as much as you wish to have it. It is better never 
to have a steak cut less than three-fourths of an inch thick, 
as a thin steak is very dry, and has not so good a flavor as 
a thicker one. When the steak or chop is ready to remove 
from the griddle, season with salt and pepper, and if the 
steak is lean, put a little butter on a warm platter with 
the salt and pepper, lay the steak on these a minute, then 
turn it over. Always serve a broiled steak at once. 

To Broil Hamburg Steak- 

The round steak, which is used for hamburg, should be 
chopped very fine and made into cakes not more than one 
and one-quarter inches thick. Have a spider, smoking hot, 
put a small piece of butter in the spider and lay the ham- 
burg on this. When nicely browned, and before the 
juices begin to exude, put a bit of butter on the upper side 
of the steak, and with a limber knife carefully turn and 
brown it on that side. It should be turned as you would 
any steak until done as desired. Do not cook too much, 
or the steak will be dry and tasteless. When done, lift to 
a warm platter, sprinkle with salt, and serve. 

To Broil a Chicken. 

To prepare a chicken for broiling, split down the back 
and cut off a part of the backbone in order that the 
chicken may lay flat, and press it with the rolling pin to 
flatten the breast bone somewhat. Put in a wire broiler 
over the fire inside down, and broil as a steak. A small, 
young chicken, and no other, is fit for broiling. It will 
cook over a brisk fire in from fifteen to twenty minutes. 



MEATS. 



193 



If the fire is not in good condition, the chicken will be im- 
perfectly cooked and dry. 

To Broil a Chicken in the Oven. 

Lay the chicken, prepared as above, in a pan or spider 
just large enough to hold it, brush the inside over with 
clarified butter, lay skin side down, and put into a hot oven 
on the grate. It should be nicely browned in twenty-five 
minutes. To ascertain whether it is done through, pierce 
with a toothpick ; if the juice is red, cook longer in a cooler 
part of the oven. When done, put on the platter, dot with 
bits of butter ,and jab with a knife, that the melting butter 
may season the chicken. 

To Broil Squabs. 

Prepare and broil squabs same as young chicken. 

To Broil Woodcocks. 

These birds usually have the long bill run through the 
thigh joints, the head being always left on. Broil in wire 
broiler over the coals, or in the oven, as a chicken. 




Fish and Boning Knife. 

To Oven Broil a Fish. 

Remove the scales, if any, also the head and fins. Wash 
the fish, and wipe the water from it. Begin at the head 
end, and with a dull knife scrape the meat back from the 
ends of the bones and follow them to the back bone on 
one side, clear to the tail. Then treat the other side in 
the same way, and take backbone and ribs out together. 
Where there are many small bones, do not try to get 
them all out, but only the main ones. 

7 



194 HOUSEHOLD SCIENCE. 

Lay the fish flat on a pan just large enough to hold it, 
brush the flesh side with clarified butter, and cook in a 
very hot oven until it flakes, or lay slices of bacon over 
the surface before putting the fish into the oven. When 
done, spread with parsley butter, and serve. Or serve 
with tartare sauce, or serve plain with lemon points. Serve 
cold slaw or sliced cucumbers with broiled fish. Potato 
balls in cream are always a pleasant accompaniment. 

Parsley Butter. 

Three tablespoonfuls of butter, two tablespoonfuls of 
chopped parsley, one tablespoonful of lemon juice, salt and 
pepper to taste. Stir all well together, and serve on the 
hot food. 

To Broil Oysters. 

Select the largest oysters, see that they are free from 
shells, and dry on a towel. Season each oyster, brush over 
with butter, and broil in a close-wired broiler over a hot 
fire. 

Broiled Mackerel. 

If the mackerel be fresh see that it is perfectly cleaned, 
wash and wipe dry. Split open on the under side, 
sprinkle lightly with salt and lay on a buttered gridiron 
over a clear bed of coals with the inside next the fire. 
When brown turn it over and brown on the other side. 
When done place on a warm platter and put bits of butter 
over it. Cover closely for a short time and serve. 

If the mackerel is salt, freshen it in water over night, 
in the morning turn the water off and wash in clean, cold 
water, then proceed as with the fresh fish. 

To Broil Bacon. 

Cut the bacon very thin, put into a very hot spider and 
brown, then turn and brown on the other side, take from 
spider and place on a cloth or brown paper, and set in the 
oven a few minutes. 



MEATS. 195 

ROASTING. 

The principles underlying broiling and roasting are the 
same. In each case a piece of tender meat is used, a great 
heat is brought to bear, so that the outer surface may be 
kept intact, and the result is a piece of meat with a flavor 
that can be gotten in no other way. The meat should be 
seasoned when it is carved. When the meat is basted and 
the seasoning cooked through it, there is little difference 
in the flavor of an expensive and a cheap piece of meat. 

Beef, mutton and venison are all roasted in the same 
way : Remove the outer skin in order to rid the meat of 




Ribs and Short Loin. 



dirt and unpleasant flavor. This is especially necessary in 
mutton, as much of the unpleasant taste lies in this outer 
skin. Do not allow the butcher to remove the bones, as 
this gives more cut surfaces from which the juices may 
exude, and there will necessarily be some meat cut away 
with the bones, and the bone itself adds flavor to the roast. 
A writer who has given the matter of household waste 
some study says that the waste begins in the meat shop. 
He states that he has seen four and one-half pounds of 
trimmings taken from a sixteen-pound roast. These trim- 
mings, which consisted approximately of two and one- 
fourth pounds of bone and one-half pound of tendon and 



196 



HOUSEHOLD SCIENCE. 



gristle, which would add flavor and nutrition to a roast, 
and one-and three-fourths pounds of meat, of which one 
pound is lean, and the other three-fourths fat, were left for 
the butcher to sell to the soap man, or get rid of as best he 
could. He assumes the nutritive value of the ingredients 
to amount to twelve and one-half per cent, of the whole, 
hence twenty-eight cents worth of nutritious material, be- 
sides bone and tendon, were left for garbage. 




Prime Ribs and Short Loin of Beef. 

Before putting the meat into the oven, the cut surfaces 
should be seared, in order to shut in the juices. Oven for 
roasting same as for bread. Braise the end pieces, which 
contain the bones and are not juicy. Braising can be 
successfully done in the oven, and a covered pan is good 
for this purpose. Do not baste the meat while cooking. 
Fear is at the bottom of much trouble, and the cause of 
unnecessary labor, and many baste the meat for fear it 
will burn. 

To Roast a Piece of Beef. 

Wash the outside or skinny part of the meat with a 
white cloth, but do not put the cut surfaces into the pan 



MEATS. 



197 



of water, as this will prevent their browning nicely when 
seared, and there has been nothing to soil them. Meas- 
ure the meat before cooking and for every inch in thick- 
ness, allow fifteen minutes in the oven after it begins 
to cook, if wanted rare. If it is desired better done, give 
it twenty minutes to the inch. Have the oven hot enough 
so that you can hear the meat sizzling as you listen outside 




Small End Rib Cut of Beef. 



the oven door, but not hot enough to burn. Sufficient heat 
can be used without discoloring the fat, and if the meat is 
well seared, very little juice will escape into the pan. 

Yorkshire Pudding. 

Beat three eggs until very light, put in a scant teaspoon- 
ful of salt and one pint of milk, pour one-half cup of the 
mixture over two-thirds of a cup of flour, and stir to a 



198 



HOUSEHOLD SCIENCE. 



smooth paste, then pour the rest in, and beat well. Bake 
in a hot gem pan forty-five minutes, or pour into the roast- 
ing pan under the meat, which rests on a rack, and bake. 

Braised Beef. 

Choose a cut of beef which is too tough for oven roast- 
ing. The lower part of the round is good for this pur- 
pose. Put it into a covered roasting pan, and when well 
browned put in a little water, and keep covered until done. 
Season when about half done. 

Tomato Sauce. 

Brown together in a saucepan one and one-half table- 
spoonfuls of butter and two of flour. Add one cup of 





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Beef Shoulder Cut. 

liquid from the roasting pan, and one-half a cup of 
strained tomato, and let boil up together. Thicken with 
one and one-half tablespoonfuls of flour, mixed with a lit- 
tle water, and stir, until smooth and cooked. 

To Roast Spare Ribs of Pork. 

See that they are clean, then break the bones in the cen- 
ter of their length, season with salt and pepper, and bake 
in a hot oven until done. 

To Roast Pork. 

Put into the oven in a dry pan, same as beef, and when 
brown, baste same as chicken, except that, in making bast- 



MEATS. 199 

ing for pork, leave out the butter. An easy way to baste 
veal or pork is to turn it over in the pan containing the 
basting. Pork or veal is seasoned before putting into the 
oven, because it is necessarily cooked a long time, and can- 
not be served juicy. 

To Roast Veal. 

Proceed in the same manner as for pork, except use half 
as much sugar as salt in seasoning the meat. It is well 
to use a dressing with veal, and make same as chicken 
dressing. It is better never to reheat a roast of juicy 
meat, as mutton, lamb or beef. Better use cold or cook a 
small roast. 

To Roast a Leg of Lamb or Mutton. 

Scrape the flesh back from the small bone at the shank 
end, and remove at the joint, if this has not already been 
done. Remove the thin outer skin without cutting into 
the flesh. See that the joint is clean and dry, sear the cut 
surfaces by pressing for a few minutes on a smoking hot 
spider, put into the oven, and keep hot enough to smoke 
a little and sizzle, but do not let burn. It should cook 
without basting, and will, if not too hot. The basting 
draws the juices out of the meat, and leaves it dry. Serve 
roast lamb with mint sauce, currant jelly, grape jelly, or 
barberry jelly. A leg of lamb usually requires about one 
and one-fourth hours, but if wanted well done, give fifteen 
minutes longer. Serve the meat hot, and let the guests 
season for themselves, then the juice will not remain in 
the platter. A leg of mutton will need to cook about fif- 
teen minutes longer than a leg of lamb. 

Serve with mutton some acid jelly. The vegetables 
which may be served with it are many, as browned sweet 
potatoes, hubbard squash, green peas, sliced tomatoes, etc. 
Stewed peaches, browned apples, or apple sauce may be 
used instead of jelly, if desired. 



200 HOUSEHOLD SCIENCE. 

Mint Sauce for Roast Lamb. 

One heaping tablespoonful of finely-chopped mint, one 
cup of vinegar (scant). Season to taste with salt and 
pepper, put mint and vinegar together, heat to the boiling 
point, and serve. 

To Bake a Fish (with Dressing). 

Bone, or leave the bones in. It is easier carved with 
the bones out. See that the fish is clean and dry. Make 
a dressing by using bread crumbs, and seasoning ihem 
with salt and pepper to taste, and to each cup of crumbs 
use one-fourth of a teaspoonful each of grated lemon peel 
and nutmeg. Season them a little more highly with salt 
and pepper than you want them when done, as the fish 
will take up some. Season the fish also, moisten the 
crumbs with melted butter until they taste well, but do not 
overdo. Fill the fish comfortably full, sew up, and lay 
pieces of breakfast bacon or salt pork over the top of the 
fish as it lays on the side in the baking pan, or, better, on 
the fish sheet, put slices of meat under the fish also. Bake 
in a very hot oven. It should cook in about thirty-five 
minutes, if a medium-sized fish. 

Drawn Butter Sauce. 

One cup of hot water or broth, one tablespoonful of 
flour, one level tablespoonful of butter, one-half teaspoon- 
ful of salt, one-half saltspoonful of pepper. If the broth 
is already partially seasoned, add these to taste. Put to- 
gether as White Sauce No. i. Serve with baked or boiled 
fish. 

Fish Turbot. 

One pint of whole milk, three level tablespoonfuls of 
flour, two level tablespoonfuls of butter, one teaspoonful 
of salt, a little pepper, one egg white, one-quarter tea- 
spoonful of parsley, one and one-half pounds of any 
white fish, — halibut preferred. Rub salt on the fish, and 
steam until thoroughly done. Take out bones, remove the 
skin, and shred fish very fine. Heat the flour and butter 



MEATS. 



201 



in a saucepan (do not let it brown), pour in the milk, and 
cook until it thickens and does not taste of raw flour. 
Cover and set away to cool (after seasoning). When 
cool, fold in the egg white, which has been beaten stiff. 
In a buttered baking dish put a layer of the shredded fish, 
cover with the white sauce, and continue in this way until 
all the fish and sauce are in. Cover the top with buttered 
crumbs, put in the oven, and bake fifteen or twenty min- 
utes, when it should be a nice brown. 




Fowl in Baking Dish. 

To Prepare and Roast a Chicken or Turkey. 

Cut the skin at the back of the neck to remove the crop. 
After cutting around the vent, remove the entrails by mak- 
ing a cut under one of the second joints, — the one most 
convenient for you. Wash well inside and out with cold 
water, and wipe dry with a clean, white cloth. 

Make a dressing of bread crumbs, seasoning with salt 
and pepper, and moistening with melted butter. Do not 
use enough butter to make the crumbs adhere. Do not 
put in water and do not pack the crumbs in the chicken, 
but leave a little room for the dressing to swell. Season 
highly, as some seasoning will be taken up by the chicken. 
After filling, lap the skin at the back of the neck, and 
bring over the end of the neck bone, and pin with a 
skewer, or tie. This closes the opening made in removing 
the crop. Tie the drum sticks together, and put in a 



202 HOUSEHOLD SCIENCE. 

skewer, or tie down without a skewer, thus closing the 
opening under the second joint. Brown the chicken 
nicely, then begin basting. Make basting by stirring to- 
gether one tablespoonful of butter and one and one-half 
of flour, pour on one pint of boiling water, and stir. Sea- 
son well with salt and pepper. The length of time neces- 
sary for cooking depends on the age, as well as size. A 
young chicken, weighing two and a half pounds, dressed, 
requires about three-quarters of an hour. Choose only 
those chickens for roasting which are young enough for 
the tip of the breast bone to bend readily. For older 
ones than this, use a covered pan or kettle and braise 
rather than roast. 

Basting for Fowls — Class Rule. 

To make basting gravy, take one teaspoonful of flour, 
one-half teaspoonful of butter, and rub together. To this 
add one-half cup of liquid, and season with salt and pep- 
per, and let boil until smooth. 

A very thin gravy makes a good basting material. A 
big turkey would require a quart of basting gravy. 

A turkey weighing eight pounds will usually require 
about three hours to cook. Serve with cranberry sauce 
or currant jelly. 

With roast chicken or turkey serve scalloped oysters. 
Oysters in dressing are apt to be too much cooked. Vege- 
tables which are nice with chicken and turkey are white 
potatoes, tomatoes, sweet corn, sweet potatoes, and slaw. 

A covered pan is never necessary, but after the edible is 
brown, it may be used, especially for poultry, veal and pork, 
because the poultry is protected by the skin, and the others 
must be cooked slowly and a long time. In juicy meats, 
the steam softens the surface, and allows the juice to run 
out. 

Seasonings for Meat Dressings. 

Thyme is used mainly in broths and soups, but it may be 
used in meat dressings also. Lemon thyme is less pun- 



FRYING. 



203 



gent than the common thyme, and is especially nice in veal 
dressings, if one wishes thyme at all. Sweet marjoram 
or knotted marjoram is less delicate than lemon thyme, 
but is the best of marjorams for this purpose. When 
sage is used, the common green is best. Sage is good 
with pork, as it improves the flavor of the meat. With 
chicken and turkey, celery is a more harmonious flavor 
than sage. 




Frying Kettle and Basket. 



FRYING. 

By frying we mean cooking in deep fat. Any pure, 
clear fat that is free from strong odor will answer the 
purpose. In order that the frying be properly done, ( i ) 
the fat used for frying must be clarified unless already 
clear. To clarify fat, put where it will melt, and slice 
into it one small raw potato. Cook until it ceases to bub- 
ble, but do not make it hot enough to burn the potato. 
Strain through a fine sieve, pouring it carefully from the 
sediment. (2) The temperature of the fat must be high 



204 HOUSEHOLD SCIENCE. 

enough to sear the surface of the article cooked as nearly 
instantaneously as possible, in order that the juices be pre- 
served inside the food, and consequently the flavor be un- 
impaired. The quick cooking prevents all the absorption 
of fat, which is a very important matter in fried food. 

Before there is any danger of the fat burning, a slice 
of raw potato should be dropped into it. As soon as the 
potato becomes brown, the grease is hot enough for frying 
most things. Keep a piece of potato in the fat when 
nothing is cooking, to prevent the fat burning. 

The thing of importance is that the fat be sufficiently 
deep to immerse the article fried, as it will then cook at 
once on all sides. For perfect frying, articles should be 
round or spherical, as articles of this shape will fry more 
perfectly because the sides touch less, and all parts are 
exposed to the action of the heat. Only a few articles of 
food should be put in at one time, lest the heat of the 
grease be reduced below the frying temperature. 

The frying basket should be dipped into the fat before 
the food is put into it. If the articles to be fried are of a 
delicate nature, as oysters or croquettes, they should be 
put into the basket, the basket should then be lowered 
slowly into the hot fat, but in general the basket should 
be lowered empty, and the articles to be fried put into it 
one by one. 

Fried Food may be Divided Into Three Classes, — 
First, that class of food which requires no protection to 
prevent the absorption of grease, as potatoes and rice. 
Second, those foods which need protection, as chicken, 
fish, etc. Third, that class which is perfectly soft and 
moist, or of perfectly smooth surface, and which, on ac- 
count of one or more of these conditions, must be given 
all the protection possible. Articles of this class of foods 
should be rolled in a mixture of equal parts of wheat flour 



FRYING. 2 

and cornmeal, in order that the surface be rendered dry 
and rough before applying the coating of egg. To this 
class belong oysters and croquettes. 

Fried Potatoes. 

Pare the potatoes, cut into the desired shape and soak 
in ice water until wanted for frying. Heat the grease in 
the frying kettle, and test its temperature with a slice of 
potato. In the meantime drain the potatoes in a colander, 
and shake in a towel to remove the moisture. Lower the 
basket into the grease, and add a few slices of potato at a 
time, until the bottom is covered. The rapidity with which 
the potatoes may be put in must be determined by the 
appearance of the fat. If the surface of the liquid be- 
comes covered with bubbles, let it become hotter before 
adding more food, as the bubbles indicate that the grease 
is not hot enough. When the potatoes are done, lift the 
basket, shake the grease off, and turn the articles into a 
dish lined with several folds of cheesecloth. Serve on a 
napkin on a platter. 

Potato Straws. 

Potato straws must be well cooked to render them crisp. 
Use long potatoes and cut into slender, matchlike strips. 
Soak them in ice water for half an hour after cutting 
before frying. Such treatment removes much of the food 
value, but the straws look better. 

To Fry Fish. 

Cut into pieces of a suitable size for serving, and coat 
with a grease-proof coating made by beating two eggs 
with four tablespoonfuls of water until well mixed, but 
not light. Season each piece of fish, dip in the egg, coat 
with bread crumbs and fry. 

Small fish are fried without cutting. Young chicken, 
and tender veal may be cooked in the same way. Fish 
for frying must be dried thoroughly, and dredged thickly 
with flour before being brushed over with egg and bread 
crumbs. 



206 HOUSEHOLD SCIENCE. 

To Fry Oysters. 

Choose oysters of the largest size, and dry on a white 
cloth. See that they are free from shells. Season the 
oysters with salt and pepper, and roll in cornmeal. Then 
dip in the egg coating, as for fish, and cover with very fine, 
light bread crumbs. Coarser crumbs cannot be used for 
this. They must be very fine, and from the inner part of 
the loaf. Lay the coated oysters carefully on the bottom 
of the frying basket, lower into the hot grease. The coat- 
ing should brown in a very short time, when the oysters 
will be done. Oysters and croquettes should have the fat 
very hot, because they are so easily cooked. 

Larding, Meats, etc. 

Lean meats which are inclined to be rather dry are the 
ones usually larded, as fillet of beef (the tenderloin), fillet 
of veal (that cut from the thick portion of the leg), roast 
chicken, turkey, grouse, etc. The object of larding is to 
give the flavor of fat pork in a small degree to the ar- 
ticle cooked, and also to keep the surface oiled, that it 
may not become so hard. Strips of salt pork are some- 
times simply laid on the roast while it cooks. Sometimes 
gashes are cut, and strips of salt pork laid in them so that 
the fat may penetrate and flavor the interior of the meat 
somewhat. 

Use firm salt pork, and remove the rind. Then cut 
parallel with the rind, strips of fat, free from lean, and 
throw into a basin of ice water. Make these strips about 
one-fourth of an inch wide, one-fourth of an inch thick, 
and two inches long. Procure a larding needle of proper 
size, insert the lardoon, and push well up into the needle. 
Insert an iron skewer into the flesh at the tip of the 
breast, making it about half an inch below the surface, 
and take a stitch an inch long, and draw lardoon into 
place. In larding a fowl, begin at the tip of the breast 
and make two rows up the breast to the wings on each 
side of the breast bone. Put one or two rows on the 



FRYING. 207 

legs, beginning with the drum stick, and running up the 
second joint to the body. In larding a fillet, put the rows 
of lardoons about an inch apart. For larding birds, use 
a smaller needle, and proportionately smaller lardoons. 

To Fillet a Fowl. 

After the fowl is dressed, place it with the head to- 
ward you, and remove skin from the breast. Then cut 
straight in a line from the middle of neck to the point 
of the wishbone. Follow the wishbone down and sepa- 
rate the meat from the wing bone, and loosen from the 
side, thus removing one-half the meat on the breastbone. 
This can be separated into two fillets, one smaller than the 
other. 

To Fillet a Fish. 

Remove skin and bones, and if the fish is large, cut each 
half into two parts lengthwise. If the fish is small, leave 
each side whole. In any case, roll up, bread and fry. 

References — U. S. Dept. of Agr., Farmers' Bulletin No. 34, 
pages 19 and 20; U. S. Dept. of Agr., Office of Experiment Sta- 
tions, Bulletin No. 21, pages 13, 72, U, 81 and 82; U. S. De- 
partment of Agr., Office of Experiment Stations, Bulletin 102, 
pages 63 and 64. 



CHAPTER XVI. 



SAUTEING. 



Sauteing is a term used to describe the manner of cook- 
ing food in a small quantity of fat. For sauteing, one 
needs a fat which will bear a high temperature without 
burning. Butter or drippings, when used for cooking 
food, should always be clarified. 

To Clarify Butter. 

Put in the saucepan over the fire, and let cook until the 
scum can be removed, then pour off the liquid carefully 
from the sediment which settles in the bottom. To clar- 
ify drippings, put in a kettle over the fire, and cook until 
the water is out, then pour into a vessel of clear water, let 
cool, take out the cake of fat, scrape the bottom, and with 
a clean cloth wipe off all water, and repeat the process if 
necessary. 

To Saute Salsify. 

Cook the salsify in salted boiling water, drain, dry, sea- 
son, and mash. When cooled a little, mix with each pint 
of salsify one egg well beaten and seasoned. Form the 
mixture into cakes, coat with egg and crumbs, and put into a 
spider well greased with fat (clarified butter, drippings, 
ham, or bacon fat), brown on both sides, and serve hot. 

To Saute Cabbage. 

Chop cabbage moderately fine, put two tablespoonfuls 
of butter in the bottom of the kettle, put in three pints of 
shredded cabbage, and just enough water to keep from 
burning. Cook closely covered until tender, season with 
salt and pepper, and serve. 



SAUTEING. 209 

To Saute Parsnips. 

Cut into slices about one-half inch thick, steam until 
tender, and add one teaspoonful of sugar to two table- 
spoonfuls of fat, and brown the parsnips in this on a 
spider. Or treat cold mashed parsnips same as oyster 
plant. Use butter and drippings mixed in sauteing pars- 
nips, because they will have a better flavor. 

To Saute Sweet Potatoes. 

Remove the skin from cold sweet potatoes, sprinkle 
over them a little salt and a little sugar and fry in but- 
ter. Be careful not to let them burn. Use clarified but- 
ter. 

To Saute Potatoes. 

Slice cold boiled potatoes lengthwise in one-fourth inch 
slices, season, and brown on both sides. 

Sauted Potato Balls. 

Put one pint of cold mashed potatoes in a little milk or 
cream in a saucepan, and mix and stir potatoes until they 
are free from lumps, but not actually hot. Beat one egg 
light, and add enough of it to the potatoes to make them 
adhere. Form into cakes, and brown on both sides. 

Hashed Brown Potatoes. 

Chop cold boiled potatoes as for hash, and season well. 
Use white sauce to moisten so that they will stick to- 
gether, but be careful not to make too moist. May hash 
dried bread, and use with them in any proportion liked. 
These potatoes may be varied also by leaving out the 
bread, and seasoning the hashed potatoes with onion and 
parsley before sauteing them. Cook until brown on bot- 
tom in a spider coated with crumbs, and turn out like an 
omelet. 

To Saute Summer Squash. 

Summer squash, when young, may be sauted. Wash 
and wipe, then cut in slices half an inch thick, season each 



210 HOUSEHOLD SCIENCE. 

with salt and pepper, brown in plenty of clarified butter, 
and cover to steam, if not tender when brown. 

To Saute Onions. 

Peel the onions, slice crosswise, have the fat hot in the 
spider, put the onions into it, season, and cook covered un- 
til tender, stirring as needed. 

Scotch Haggis. 

One-half cup of ground liver, two tablespoonfuls of 
picked-up suet, three-fourths cup of water, one-eighth 
teaspoonful of salt, one-half cup (generous) of rolled 
oats. Boil the liver in a lump in salted water, and grate 
when cold. Pick the suet up fine, and add the liver 
to the rolled oats. Have the water boiling in the upper 
part of the double boiler, stir the cereal, liver, and suet in, 
and when it ceases to settle, put into the hot water in 
the lower part of boiler, and cook one hour. When cold, 
saute like mush. 

Scrapple. 

One large hog's head. — one from a hog weighing about 
two hundred pounds, — cut just behind the ears. Remove 
all undesirable parts. Soak several hours in slightly 
salted water, and boil until the meat falls from the bones. 
Remove the meat from the liquor and let cool. Strain 
the liquor, and when cold, skim off the grease. Heat the 
liquor, season it, and pour in hot water until the quan- 
tity of liquor equals two gallons (generous). Into this 
put the hashed meat, and season. Heat to boiling, and stir 
into it cornmeal until it is stiff. Two cups of flour should 
be mixed with the cornmeal. Cook until the fat can 
again be seen rising to the top, then pour into pans lined 
with white cloth and let cool. Saute same as mush, or put 
the scrappel cut in slices into a hot spider, and brown in 
its own fat. 



SAUTEING. 211 

To Saute Cold Mush. 

Cut mush of any kind into slices, roll in egg and 
crumbs, and brown on both sides in a hot spider con- 
taining a little fat. Bacon or ham fat is best. 

To Saute Bread. 

Break an egg into a bowl, and beat until well broken. 
Add to it one cup of sweet milk, and mix the two. Sea- 
son the liquid to taste. Dip slices of stale bread in this, 
and saute in hot fat in a spider until well browned on 
both sides. 

To Saute Chicken. 

Cut the chicken into pieces of the proper size for serv- 
ing, season each piece with salt and pepper, roll in flour, 
and place in the hot fat until the bottom of the spider 
is covered. Brown on both sides, then put in a little 
hot water, cover closely, and draw to the back of the 
range and let cook through. When done, remove the 
chicken to a warm platter. Put into the fat two table- 
spoonfuls of flour and stir until mixed, then put in one 
cup of milk or chicken broth, stir well, and when it is 
thick, and the flour is cooked, season and serve. Saute 
prairie chickens same as chicken. 

To Saute Rabbit. 

Proceed in the same way as for chicken. 

To Prepare and Saute Sweetbreads. 

Remove the inedible parts. If the sweetbreads are 
bloody, soak in cold water a few hours. When ready, put 
to cook in boiling salted water and cook until they can be 
easily pierced with a toothpick. If you wish them white 
as possible, put into cold water and let stand a little. 
When cold, cut into half-inch thick slices, cover with egg 
and crumbs, and saute in hot bacon fat. May serve bacon 
with the sweetbreads. 



212 HOUSEHOLD SCIENCE. 

Sauted Hash Balls. 

One cup of hashed meat, one cup of mashed potato, 
one egg, whipped. Season to taste. Form into balls, and 
saute in a little fat. 

To Saute Ham. 

Cut the slices very thin, trim off the rind, and a small 
shaving, all around the slices. Lay the pieces on a dry 
but smoking-hot spider, and brown on each side, then put 
in a very little water, cover closely, and let simmer a few 
minutes to cook through. Drain off the fat before serv- 
ing. 

To Saute Fish. 

Prepare the fish for cooking, cut into pieces suitable for 
serving, season with salt and pepper, roll in flour and 
cornmeal, equal parts, put into the hot fat, and brown 
quickly on both sides, then draw to a cooler part of range 
and let cook through. 

To Saute Fish Cakes. 

After the codfish has been soaked, shredded, freed 
from skin and bones, and cooked, if necessary, mix with 
an equal amount of potato, either mashed or hashed 
fine, and to a pint of the mixture add two tablespoonfuls 
of sweet cream or milk, and one tablespoonful of but- 
ter. Form into cakes, put into a spider with a little hot 
fat, and brown on both sides. Use any good-flavored 
drippings for the frying fat for these. 

To Saute Liver. 

Calf's liver is the best. Remove the inedible parts and 
cut the liver into slices half an inch thick, put into a pan, 
pour boiling water over them, drain, season each slice, 
cover with flour, and saute in bacon fat until done 
through. Bacon and liver are appropriately cooked and 
served together. 



SAUTEING. 213 

To Saute Liver Balls- 
One cup of cold liver, minced fine ; one tablespoonful of 
cold bacon, chopped ; one teaspoonful of finely-minced 
parsley, one teaspoonful of finely-minced capers, one tea- 
spoonful of finely-minced pickles, one-half teaspoonful of 
finely-minced onion, salt and pepper to taste. Saute in 
bacon fat. 

Cold Meat Scrapple. 

Make a cornmeal mush by using one and one-half 
cups of water, one-fourth cup of cornmeal and one-half 
teaspoonful of salt. Cook the mush about twenty min- 
utes, then stir in three-fourths of a cup of fine hashed 
meat, cook ten minutes, turn into a granite pan. When 
cold and firm, cut in slices and saute like mush. Serve 
while hot. 

To Saute Eggs. 

Put two tablespoonfuls of ham or bacon fat in the 
spider, break the number of eggs required, and slide 
from the plate into spider, let cook a few minutes, then 
put in two tablespoonfuls of water, cover closely, and let 
cook until the white is set. 

To Saute Veal Chops. 

Trim the chops so that they will lay flat on the spider, 
season them to taste with salt and pepper, sprinkle over 
them half as much sugar as salt, and dredge with flour. 
Put two tablespoonfuls of butter and two of beef drip- 
pings into the spider, and when smoking hot lay the chops 
in and brown them on both sides. Then add one-fourth 
of a cup of water, cover closely, and let cook slowly for 
fifteen or twenty minutes, uncover, let the water evapor- 
ate, and serve. Pork and veal are considered more 
wholesome when very thoroughly cooked. 

To Cook Pork Chops. 

Have the chops cut one inch thick, as the meat will 
be more juicy and consequently finer flavored when 



214 HOUSEHOLD SCIENCE. 

cooked. Lay the chops on a plate and mix in a cup the 
amount of salt and pepper which you intend to use for 
seasoning, and with these mix one-half as much sugar as 
salt. Sprinkle the mixture over the chops, and dredge 
with flour. If fat, place on a smoking hot dry spider, sea- 
soned side up. When brown on one side turn and brown 
on the other side. Drain off the grease, cover the spider 
closely, and draw to the back of the range; put in a 
tablespoonful of water, and let simmer until done through. 
Lift to a warm platter, put in two tablespoonfuls of milk 
or cream, stir well, pour over the chops, and serve. Hot 
apple sauce is always relished with fresh pork. 

To Cook Mutton Chops. 

Have the chops cut the same thickness as the pork 
chops, and for the same reason. It is best, in preparing 
any chop or steak for cooking to remove the outer skin- 
like tissue, as it removes any dirt which may adhere to 
the meat. In mutton the strong flavor is largely due to 
the outer skin, and the fat lying near it. When ready, 
cook in the same way as pork chops, except omit the 
sugar. Apples baked without the skins are much relished 
with mutton or lamb chops. 

To Cook Frozen Meats. 

Frozen meats should be thawed before cooking, other- 
wise the cold interior will require a heat so long continued 
as to overcook the outer parts of the cut. It is usually 
best to place the meat for several hours at a temperature 
of about eighty degrees, protected from the air, that it 
may thaw gradually ; but this cannot always be done. To 
cook a frozen steak or chop, have a hot spider containing 
a little fat, place the steak in this, and let it brown on 
both sides. Then pour into the spider a few tablespoon- 
fuls of water, cover closely, draw to a cooler part of the 
range, and allow to cook thoroughly by means of the 
steam produced. When almost done, sprinkle salt over 
the surface of the steak, turn the meat, and lift to a warm 



SAUTEING. 215 

platter, pour the gravy over it, and put a few spoonfuls of 
cream or hot water in the spider, stir, and pour this into 
the platter. A frozen roast, if carefully prepared, is 
usually best cooked as a pot roast, or roasted in a covered 
pan in the oven. In either case, put a little water in the 
bottom of the vessel, and let it be boiling on the range. 
Place the meat in the water, and when one surface has 
cooked a little, turn the meat and cook another surface, 
until all cut parts are seared. This will help to shut in 
the juices and render the joint more moist. It is best to 
leave the meat unsalted, and let each guest salt it to suit 
his own taste. If salt is used while the meat is cooking, 
some of the juices are lost on account of it. After it is 
seared, put on the close-fitting cover, whether the meat 
is to be cooked in a kettle on the range or in a pan 
in the oven. Cook slowly until almost done; then allow 
the water to evaporate, and brown each surface of the 
meat before serving. 

Beef Balls with Horseradish Sauce. 

One cup of cold beef chopped. Moisten with a very 
thick brown gravy, enough to make stick together, and 
season. Shape into cakes and saute in hot fat. May sea- 
son the balls like croquettes, if desired. Serve with horse- 
radish sauce. 

Sauteing Fruits. 

Pare, core, and slice apples, and saute same as onions. 
The apples may be sliced without paring, if desired. 

To Saute Bananas. 

Peel and cut each in three pieces lengthwise, dust them 
with sugar, put on a few drops of lemon juice, put into 
the hot butter, and brown on each side. Use clarified 
butter. 



CHAPTER XVII. 



CARVING. 



In order to be successful in any undertaking, and es- 
pecially in one which must be performed in the pres- 
ence of others, it is necessary to understand perfectly 
every detail of the work. There are a few general truths 
about carving which must be learned, but no person be- 
comes an expert carver except by serving his appren- 
ticeship well. There are two ways of obtaining neces- 




Carving Knife and Fork. 

sary practice. One and probably the only way open to 
boys is to obtain the privilege of carving at the family 
table. The assurance that all awkward haggling and 
mussing of table cloths will be overlooked gives cour- 
age to persevere in the undertaking. A girl can easily 
master many parts of this useful art before attempting 
to carve a fowl or joint of meat at the table. 

In cutting up raw fowls for stews, fricassees, etc.. she 
can learn to locate each joint so accurately that she will 
never cut into a bone when the object is to sever smoothly 
the leg or wing of a fowl at table. 



CARVING. 217 

It is an easy matter, by studying cuts of raw meat, to 
learn which way the muscle fibers run in different parts of 
the animal, and thus avoid cutting with the grain of the 
meat, instead of across it. 

One thing more should be learned in private, — how to 
sharpen a knife. The carver must be sharp. No woman 
is independent unless she can sharpen a knife. Armed 
with this amount of knowledge, the task of becoming a 
good carver will be much lessened. 

A roast of pork loin should have each division of the 
vertebrae made before coming into the kitchen. 

The platter on which any piece of meat is served must 
be large enough to hold the meat and leave sufficient 
space for the slices when cut. A very small platter ren- 
ders it impossible for the carver to work successfully 
without soiling the carving cloth, the table cloth, or both. 

To Carve a Beefsteak. 

Remove the bone, and cut the meat in narrow strips. 
Serve some of the choicest meat with a bit of the tougher 
portion, and a little fat, if there be any, to each person. 

To Carve a Sirloin Roast. 

Remove the tenderloin, slice as thin as practicable, and 
serve some of this with some of the sirloin cut in thin 
slices. 

To Carve a Joint of Meat Boiled or Roasted. 

Place the platter on the table so that the thin side of the 
joint will be toward the carver, and the shank on the left. 
Place the carving fork so that the joint can be held 
firmly and tipped at will. Hold the meat with the thick 
side up, and cut as many slices as possible. Cut very 
thin. Separate all the slices at the lower side by passing 
the knife along very near the bone. Remove the fork, 
turn the joint, and carve the other side in the same way. 

Serve roast lamb with mint sauce, roast mutton or 



218 HOUSEHOLD SCIENCE. 

venison with currant jelly, boiled mutton with caper or 
egg sauce. 

To Carve a Loin of Pork, Veal, etc. 

Cut in slices as thin as possible, and pass the knife 
through the natural divisions of the vertebrae, which 
have been severed before the roast came into the kitchen. 




Game Carver. 

To Carve a Saddle of Mutton, Lamb or Venison. 

A saddle is merely a double loin, and should be carved 
in the same way. If the kidney and tenderloin are 
cooked in the roast, as they often are, remove them with 
the fat, and serve a bit of each on every plate. 
To Carve Cuts from the Forequarter. 

The cuts from the forequarter are more difficult to 
carve satisfactorily than those from the hindquarter. In 
order to carve these cuts successfully, keep the following 
points in view : Locate the hidden bones, and remember 
the direction of the muscles. Cut across the grain, and 
make as good-looking slices as possible. It is really better 
that the pieces which are very awkward to carve be sliced 
in the kitchen or pantry. 
To Carve a Turkey. 

Place the bird on the platter with the breast up. Set 
the platter so that the neck is at the carver's left hand. 



CARVING. 219 

Place the fork astride the breast bone, and sink the 
prongs firmly into the flesh. Tip the turkey a little to lift 
one wing from the platter, and sever at the joint. Re- 
move the other wing in the same way. Sever the drum- 
sticks from the second joints, cutting from above. Sepa- 
rate the second joint into three parts by cutting off a 
slice on each side parallel with the bone. Let the part re- 
maining on the bone be about three-fourths of an inch 
wide. Separate the bone from the body. Cut the meat 
of the drumsticks from the bone. Slice the breast in thin, 
nice-shaped pieces. Remove the breast bone by turning 
the tip back. Remove the shoulder blade in a similar 
manner. Serve portions of white and dark meat and 
some dressing to each guest. To finish the carving, cut 
through the cartilage, and separate the back from the rib 
pieces by turning with skin side up, and lifting the tail end 
with a fork while the knife rests just below the ribs, and 
thus break it. Cut close to the backbone, and thus di- 
vide the back lengthwise. 

A chicken is carved in the same manner as a turkey, 
except that the legs and second joints are left whole. 

To Carve a Goose or a Duck. 

Geese and ducks furnish little meat except on the 
breast. The legs, wings, and back have a scant amount, 
and that is not choice. Slice the breast across the grain, 
in as nice pieces as possible. 

To Carve a Broiled Chicken. 

Broiled chicken should be divided in two parts length- 
wise, and one-half served to each guest. 

To Carve Squirrels, Suckling Pigs, etc. 

Proceed in same manner as with larger animals of 
similar kind. 

The loin is considered the choicest part of a squirrel 

or hare. The rib is the best part of the suckling pig. 

References: Carving and Serving — Lincoln; Art of Cook- 
ery — Ewing. 



CHAPTER XVIII. 



ALBUMEN COOKING. 



Eggs, meat, and milk each contain the element known 
as "albumen," and they each require special care in cook- 
ing to give best results in flavor of food and in capa- 
bility of assimilation. Eggs are universally used as food 
during such portions of the year as they are moderate 
or cheap in price. It is a matter of regret that they are 
at other times discarded from the bill of fare in the form 
of plain eggs, and used only in cakes and such mixtures. 
Better leave off the cake, which is at best a questionable 
food, and use the eggs in their own form, since they are 
known to be wholesome food, and also promote good 
health by giving variety when it is much needed. 

The hen furnishes by far the greater portion of the eggs 
which are used as food. The eggs of the guinea fowl, 
duck, and goose are used to some extent. The eggs of 
some wild birds are greatly esteemed. Plover eggs are 
much used in England and Germany. In the United 
States, the eggs of some seabirds, as gulls, terns, herons, 
and murres are gathered in large quantities. The eggs of 
some of the inhabitants of the water are highly prized, 
viz., those of the turtle, the shad, and the sturgeon. Tur- 
tle eggs are generally used to embellish the dish pre- 
pared from the turtle meat. The eggs of the sturgeon are 
usually preserved in salt, and made into an edible known 
as "caviar." Shad-roe is usually broiled or sauted, and 
served with the fish, or made into a salad. 

Hens' eggs are prepared and served in a great manv 
ways, and enter into the composition of manv dishes. 



ALBUMEN COOKING. 

When in skillful hands, they are unexcelled as a means 
of producing light and delicate cakes, palatable muffins, 
cornbreads, etc. With milk, they become the thicken- 
ing agent in sauces, custards, puddings, etc. Whether 
they are used alone, or combined with other foods, the 
principle in cooking remains the same, — they must have a 
moderate, even heat. The difference in appearance and tex- 
ture of eggs cooked properly and those cooked quickly in a 
high heat can be readily shown by the use of a test tube. 
Put some white of egg in a test tube, and hold the tube in 
boiling water until the egg is hard boiled. On examina- 
tion, it will be found tough and somewhat elastic, and 
smaller in bulk than before heating. Cook a custard, an 
omelet, or an angel cake at a high heat, and the effect on 
the egg will be seen in a watery custard, a fallen omelet, 
and a flat angel cake. Take another test tube, and put the 
same amount of egg into it, and immerse in water, but do 
not allow the temperature to rise above 160 F. On ex- 
amination, the egg will be found coagulated, but easily 
divided, — more like excellent jelly in consistency. Now 
take two eggs of the same size, or as nearly the same size 
as possible, and from the same room, that the tempera- 
ture may be the same. Immerse one egg in boiling wa- 
ter two minutes, open it at once, and you will find a thin 
coating of white next to the shell, where the heat was 
most intense, and the rest of the white will be a milky 
semi-fluid or raw mass ; the yolk will be fluid and warm, 
but raw. Boil a pint of water in a graniteware saucepan, 
immerse the other egg, set it on the table, and let stand 
six minutes. An egg which has stood in a room at sum- 
mer heat, treated thus, will show a jelly-like white, 
scarcely cooked enough to change the flavor of a raw egg ; 
but if taken from the refrigerator, and put into water of 
the same amount and temperature, the white nearest the 
shell will be white and creamy, and the other apparently 
raw. An egg taken from a room at summer heat, and 
immersed in a pint of water which is boiling when set 



222 HOUSEHOLD SCIENCE. 

off, and left ten minutes, will give an egg cooked just a 
little more than the six-minute egg. An egg treated in 
the same way, and left twenty minutes, will give the 
white well cooked, and the yolk nearly all cooked. 

An egg cooked in water, the thermometer in which 
stands at 160 to 165 F., will be stiff enough in twenty 
minutes so that the yolk will stand up like a marble. The 
thermometer must not go above 165 ° F., nor below 160 
F., during time of test. 

When an egg is cooked in the ordinary way, whether 
medium or soft boiled, it is allowed to remain in the boil- 
ing water until it is thoroughly cooked, and the yolk set ; 
but the white nearest the shell is necessarily hard and 
horny, because the heat constantly acts on it, while that 
farther away toward the center of the egg does not be- 
gin to cook at once. Such an egg will be acted upon by 
the digestive fluids with more difficulty, because mastica- 
tion divides it into small, hard bits, while the egg with 
the creamy white presents no such obstacle to digestive 
action. An egg hard boiled in boiling water shrinks 
more and becomes harder than either the soft or medium 
boiled, because subjected for a longer time to the action 
of the boiling water. 

Those who have made experiments to ascertain how 
eggs cooked for different lengths of time compare in di- 
gestibility find that the time of cooking affects the rate 
of digestion, but does not materially affect the total di- 
gestibility of the food. The experiments were, of course, 
made on a healthy man. It seems reasonable to believe 
that an egg cooked at a temperature below the boiling 
point, on account of its jelly-like consistency, and the 
ease with which it can be divided and acted upon in the 
mouth and stomach, would certainly be better for a deli- 
cate stomach. It seems that a hard-boiled egg, unless 
thoroughly masticated, would present some difficulty to 
the digestive fluids, even in a healthy stomach. Ameri- 



ALBUMEN COOKING. 223 

cans are rapid eaters, and consequently their food is not 
always well masticated. 

Eggs for the table should be perfectly fresh. A stale 
egg has a poor flavor, and a less pleasing appearance than 
a fresh egg, whether in the shell or prepared in some 
other way. There are many stages of staleness. 

A perfectly fresh egg will show a clear red when 
looked through toward the light. An egg in which there 
is a spider-like appearance has probably been set on two 
or three days. An egg in which dark spots are seen near 
the larger end has been left too long in a dirty or warm 
hen house, and successive layers have heated it. Eggs 
which have lain several weeks, or have been packed some 
time, may have a musty taste. 

Eggs to be served in the shell must be positively fresh. 
A warm egg cup should be sent with each order. The 
egg cup may be large enough to break the egg into, or, if 
the guest prefers, he may have a cup so small that the 
egg will rest in the top of the cup, and can be eaten from 
the shell with a spoon, thus insuring its remaining hot, 
The flavor of a fresh egg is usually satisfactory, though 
there are cases in which improper food affects the flavor 
of the eggs deleteriously. 

Eggs, to be perfectly fresh and nice, should be gath- 
ered two or three times a day and kept in a cool, well-ven- 
tilated place. When eggs are strictly fresh, they will keep 
for some time at a temperature of 6o° F. Siebel states 
that 32 to 33° F. is the best temperature for storage 
eggs when packed in the shell. Eggs should never be 
kept with anything which has a strong or disagreeable 
odor, as they readily absorb whatever is in the surround- 
ing atmosphere. For further information on preserving 
and packing eggs see Farmers' Bulletin No. 128, United 
States Department of Agriculture. In packing eggs for 
home use, it is better to use only those with clean shells, 
and pack unwashed. Eggs in bulk are sometimes kept in 



224 HOUSEHOLD SCIENCE. 

cold storage. In this case, the contents of the shell are 
separated, the yolks beaten enough to mix them thor- 
oughly, put into tin cans and frozen. The egg whites are 
packed in cans and frozen also. They can thus be bought 
separately if one wishes. They will not keep long after 
thawing. 

The egg powders, etc., found on the market are not 
usually very satisfactory, even when eggs are high; but 
there are cases in which the product seems to be genuine 
egg, dried and coarsely ground. These give satisfactory 
results, but they are not always found reasonable in 
price. 

Weight of Eggs. 

The North Carolina Experiment Station, in some ex- 
periments lately concluded, has brought out the following 
facts : Eggs from different breeds of hens, if sold by 
weight, would vary from twelve to twenty cents a dozen, 
while a dozen eggs of the Pekin duck would be worth 
twenty cents a dozen at the same price per pound. This 
shows how foolish it is for us to use eggs by count 
rather than measure in our recipes for making different 
dishes. 

Nutritive Value of Eggs. 

The following table from Farmers' Bulletin No. 128 
shows that eggs resemble meat and other animal foods 
in composition. There is not a great difference in the 
food value of hens' eggs and the eggs of other domes- 
tic fowls. The yolk and the white of eggs differ in 
the following particulars : The yolk contains much fat 
and a goodly amount of mineral matter. The white is 
particularly free from fat, and has very little mineral mat- 
ter. The white contains less water and less protein than 
the yolk. When eggs are properly cooked they are very 
thoroughly digested. Eggs are valuable food, not only 
because of the valuable nutrients they contain, but also 
because thev are an almost universal favorite, and there- 



ALBUMEN COOKING. 225 

fore aid much in giving nee ded variety, and in making 
other foods palatable. It will be further noticed that 
there is practically no difference in the food value of 
brown-shelled and white-shelled eggs, despite the fact 
that they have in some places a different market value. 

Average of Composition of Eggs, Egg Products, etc., and Certain Other Foods 
From Farmers' Bulletin No. 128. 




Whole egg as purchased. 

.,.,'.' " edible portion 

White 

Yolk 

Evaporated hen's egg 
Egg substitute 
Pudding (custard) powder 
sirloin steak as purchased 
" " edible portion. 
Cheese as purchased. . 

Milk 

Wheat flour.....! 



Egg and Milk Dishes. 

In preparing dishes composed largely of milk and eggs 
he points to be specially g Uarde d are putting the two 
together when hot, and cooking at the propei tempera- 
ture, and f or the right length of time. When making 
dish in which part of the hot milk is poured over the Zs 
pour the rrnlk in a small stream on the beaten eggs g£ 

wilf h V im& ; and Wh6n thG b ° Wl is fuI1 ' the mixture 
wi be so thin that it can be added to the rest of the hot 

milk without lumping. Such dishes must be cooked, and 

not too long, for the egg will shrink in the milk the same as 

when alone in an omelet or in the shell. When a lanre 

quantity of custard is made, as for ice cream, it must be 

set in cold water and stirred when removed from the fire 

else the heat of the bulk will make the eggs too hard, and 

the custard will curdle. Dishes composed of eggs and 

milk are highly nutritious, and when properly prepared 



226 HOUSEHOLD SCIENCE. 

easily made use of in the body. When cornstarch or ar- 
rowroot is used in connection with milk and eggs, the 
starch should be mixed with the sugar and added to the 
hot milk, or add as much cold milk in bulk as there is 
starch, stir well, add to the milk, and let cook until the 
starch is done. For cooking dishes in which eggs and 
milk are used, follow the general rule for cooking protein 
foods, — use a low gentle heat, not too long continued. 
Where the yolks and whites are used separately in a dish, 
pouring the hot mixture, after yolks and milk are cooked 
together, over the well-beaten whites, usually cooks them 
sufficiently. Milk is changed by heat, and both flavor 
and digestibility are affected deleteriously by a high heat. 
Dishes should not be flavored too highly. Cooked eggs 
have a flavor which may be more palatable when modified 
somewhat by another flavoring material, but should not be 
entirely obliterated. 

Soft Boiled Eggs— For Class Work. 

Place a medium-sized egg in a pint of boiling water in 
a small saucepan. Remove from stove, and let stand ten 
minutes, for a soft egg, or twenty minutes for a medium 
boiled egg. If a number of eggs are to be cooked, boil 
half the amount of water in the vessel, put the eggs into 
it and set aside. After it has stood ten minutes, pour 
it off, and pour on the remaining half of the water boiling 
hot, cover, and let stand the allotted time. 

Hard Boiled Eggs. 

To hard boil an egg, put it into one pint of boiling 
water and let it remain there for twenty minutes. Keep 
the water boiling. This will render the yolk dry and 
mealy. Or put the egg into cold water, bring the water 
to the boiling point, after which allow the egg to remain 
fifteen minutes, which will accomplish the same result. 

Dropped or Poached Eggs. 

Have the water in a spider boiling hot, and salted quite 



ALBUMEN COOKING. 227 

salt. Break each egg separately into a small dish and 
slip from this into the boiling hot water. Set on the back 
of the stove, where the water will remain hot, but will not 
boil, cover and let stand three or four minutes, or until the 
eggs are cooked as desired. 

To Poach Eggs in Milk. 

Butter the dish in which the eggs are to be poached. 
Put into it the milk and a little salt, let heat almost to boil- 
ing, but do not burn. Break eggs separately into a cup 
and slip gently into the milk to avoid breaking the yolks. 
When done, lift onto previously prepared toast (but- 
tered) and pour milk over all. 

Scrambled Eggs No. 1. 

Break into a dish the desired number of eggs, and beat 
until well mixed, but not light. Put in a basin one table- 
spoonful of boiling water or hot milk for each egg. Pour 
the water into the eggs, pour slowly, and stir constantly. 
When mixed, put into a spider one teaspoonful of bacon 
fat for each egg, and when this becomes very hot, pour 
the egg mixture in, and stir all the time as it heats, keep- 
ing it well broken. When of a creamy consistency, sea- 
son and serve. 

Scrambled Eggs No. 2. ; 

Beat one whole egg well. Make a white sauce by 
using one-half tablespoonful of flour to one-fourth cup 
of milk, cook together until it thickens, then pour it over 
the beaten egg and mix well ; turn this into a hot omelet 
pan, which has been greased with one-fourth teaspoonful 
of butter. With a spoon scrape the egg mixture from 
the bottom of the omelet pan as it cooks. Just before re- 
moving from the fire, dust with salt and pepper if de- 
sired. Do not cook too rapidly. 

Curried Eggs. 

Make a sauce of chicken stock and cream or of milk 
alone, using one tablespoonful of flour and one of butter to 



228 HOUSEHOLD SCIENCE. 

one and one-half cups of liquid. Season with salt and pep- 
per and one teaspoonful of curry powder. Remove the 
shells of six hard-boiled eggs, cut in halves or slices, and 
place them in a deep buttered saucepan. Pour the sauce 
over them, simmer three minutes, and serve on delicately 
browned toast. 

Or, when the curry sauce is boiling hot, drop raw eggs 
into it, cover, and let set on the back of the stove four or 
five minutes. Serve on toast. 

Baked Eggs. 

Grease the sides and bottom of the baking dish or 
spider. Into this carefully slip the eggs one at a time from 
the small dish into which they were broken. Put on the 
the top of each egg a small piece of butter, and sprinkle 
over them pepper and salt. 

Or, sprinkle over the eggs buttered and seasoned bread 
crumbs. Bake in a slow oven five minutes, or until 
cooked as desired. More than five minutes will bake them 
hard. Minced ham may be used with the bread crumbs, 
if desired. 
Eggs Baked in Tomato Cups. 

Select medium-sized, firm, ripe tomatoes. Wash and 
wipe dry. Cut off a slice from the blossom end of each 
tomato and scoop out the inside. When as many are pre- 
pared as desired, dust the inside of the cup with seasoned 
bread crumbs. Break into each cup an egg, replace the 
slice cut from the tomato, set in a dripping pan, and bake 
twenty minutes in a slow oven. Serve hot. 

Baked Eggs in Potato Nests. 

Line a baking dish, or escollop shells, with cold mashed 
potato put through a ricer. The potato should be at least 
one inch in thickness. With a fork or spoon make a nest 
for the egg in the potato. Carefully drop the egg into 
this, cover with seasoned bread crumbs, and bake in a 
moderate oven seven minutes if the eggs are desired soft. 
Serve in the dish in which they are baked. 



ALBUMEN COOKING. 229 

Shirred Eggs. 

Beat the egg whites till very light, put them in mounds 
on the platter on which they are to be served. Make 
with a spoon a hollow in the top of each mound, and in 
this put a whole egg yolk. Bake in a slow oven until the 
whites are a delicate brown, season with salt and pepper 
and bits of butter. Cut together before eating. 

Creamed Egg Yolks. 

When making angel cake, drop each yolk, as the eggs 
are broken, into boiling hot water, and set where they will 
cook gentry until done. Make a white sauce of one and 




Shirred Egg-Shell for Baking. 

one-half tablespoonfuls of flour, one tablespoonful of but- 
ter, and one cup of milk. Season with salt and pepper, 
add one teaspoonful of chopped parsley (very fine), and 
pour over the well-cooked yolks. Serve with plain boiled 
or baked potatoes. 

This may be varied by using half as many mushrooms 
as egg yolks. 

Light Omelet. 

Beat the yolks of two eggs until very light. Then beat 
the whites, to which two tablespoonfuls of water, milk, or 



230 



HOUSEHOLD SCIENCE. 



cream have been added, fold together, put in the greased 
omelet pan, let stand until set on the bottom, then put 
into the oven, and let remain until firm and lightly cooked 
to the center, which can be ascertained by trying with a 
knife. Cook in a very slow oven. This omelet is often 
used without a sauce. 

Sauce for Light Omelet. 

Equal parts of white of egg and whipped cream, sweet- 
ened and flavored. More cream than egg may be used. 




Turning Out an Omelet. 

Nice for luncheon. A spoon is best for mixing white and 
cream. Strawberry juice may be used instead of cream. 

Plain Omelet. 

Two eggs, two tablespoonfuls of water (hot). Beat 
until the eggs can be lifted without running off the spoon. 
Heat one-half tablespoonful of clarified butter or bacon 
fat in an omelet pan, but be careful not to burn it. If 
any dressing is used, put in just before folding, except 
parsley, which put on when beginning to lift. Grated 



ALBUMEN COOKING. 231 

cheese may be used same as parsley, or it may be put on 
when turned. Manipulate same as cornstarch omelet. 

Fruit Omelet. 

To the yolk of one large egg, beaten until very light, 
add one tablespoonful of fruit juice. If orange is used 
put in one-fourth of a teaspoonful of grated orange peel. 
If peach is used, add one-fourth of a grated peach pit, and 
a very little cream of tartar in the whites before beating. 
If the fruit is unsweetened, add one teaspoonful of sugar, 
beat well together. Beat the white until very stiff, and 
fold in the beaten yolk. Cook very slowly in a well- 
greased omelet pan. 

Caramel Omelet — For Home Work. 

Two eggs, whites and yolks beaten separately until very 
light. Add to the beaten yolks two tablespoonfuls of 
caramel, and beat together until well mixed ; also two tea- 
spoonfuls of sugar, one-half teaspoonful of vanilla, and 
one teaspoonful of lemon. Fold this and the beaten 
whites together and cook slowly in the oven in a greased 
pan until done. Fold same as a light omelet. 

Caramel Omelet — For Class Work. 

One egg, one tablespoonful of caramel, one-fourth tea- 
spoonful of vanilla, one-half teaspoonful of lemon juice, 
one teaspoonful of sugar. Put together and cook as 
above. 

Caramel : One cup of sugar, one-fourth cup of water. 
Boil until amber colored, then add one cup of water, and 
cook until a thick syrup is made. 

Tomato Omelet. 

Make a plain omelet, and when ready to fold pour over 
it one-half cup of stewed tomato, thickened by cooking in 
it one teaspoonful of butter and two teaspoonfuls of flour 
to one-half cup of the tomato. Season with salt and pep- 
per. Serve hot on a warm plate. 



232 HOUSEHOLD SCIENCE. 

Ham Omelet. 

Two eggs slightly beaten, two tablespoonfuls of water; 
put together same as plain omelet. After cooking, cover 
the top with chopped ham, fold, and serve. 

Cheese Omelet. 

One cup milk, four level tablespoonfuls of cornstarch. 
Cook together. Pour this, when cool, over the well- 
beaten yolks of four eggs. Stir into this four level tea- 
spoonfuls of bread crumbs, and four level teaspoonfuls of 
cheese. Fold in the four whites, which have been beaten 
stiff. Bake in a moderate oven fifteen minutes. 

Cornstarch Omelet. 

Cook together two level teaspoonfuls of cornstarch and 
one-half cup of milk. Cook until it ceases to taste raw, 
then season with salt and pepper. Break two eggs, and 
when the sauce is cooled sufficiently to not cook the eggs, 
stir the sauce and eggs together, but do not beat, except 
just enough to mix well. Rub the omelet pan well with 
dry salt to make smooth, then wipe the salt all out, and 
grease well. Pour the egg mixture into it, and set on 
range, and as it cooks lift from the bottom with a fork to 
let raw egg run down and keep top smooth. When 
cooked sufficiently, turn the side next the handle toward 
the opposite side, making a turnover of the omelet. See 
that it is loose on the bottom and sides. Take the omelet 
pan in the right hand and the plate in the left, and turn 
omelet on the plate. When the egg mixture is poured 
into the pan it should be not less than one-half inch thick. 
If flour is used instead of cornstarch take twice as much. 

Laggard's Omelet — For Home Work. 

Mix four level teaspoonfuls of cornstarch in one-half 
pint of sweet milk. Cook, stirring constantly, until the 
milk thickens. Let cool until it will not cook the egg, then 
mix the cooked milk and starch with the yolks of three 
large eggs, well beaten. Beat the whites until perfectly lights 



ALBUMEN COOKING. 233 

and fold with the other. Cook in the same way as a 
light omelet. 

laggard's Omelet— For Class Work. 

Two teaspoonfuls of cornstarch, one-half cup milk, one 
large egg, white and yolk beaten separately. Put to- 
gether, and cook as above. 

To grease the omelet pan, put plenty of fat in the cen- 
ter of the pan to grease bottom and sides well, and cause 
it to cover the surface needing it by tipping the pan. 

References: U. S.Dept. Agr., Office of Exp. Stations, Farm- 
ers' Bulletin No. 128, pp. 24-26; Chemistry of Cookery— Wil- 
liams— pp. 22-24; Minn. Bulletin No. 54, p. 77. 



CHAPTER XIX. 



CHEESE. 



Cheese is an article of food which is manufactured from 
milk. Cow's milk is most extensively used, but the milk 
of ewes and goats is used in the manufacture of some of 
the cheese of commerce. Different kinds of cheese vary 
greatly in appearance, flavor, texture, and degree of hard- 
ness. 

Cottage Cheese. 

Cottage cheese is the result of a natural fermentation, 
and was probably the first variety of cheese made from 
milk. The milk for cottage cheese should not be allowed to 
become too sour, but should be used when it first becomes 
thick, and while it is still pleasantly acid. Heat it to ioo° 
F., or set it in a kettle of boiling water, stirring all the 
time to prevent some portions becoming too hot. When 
it is ready, pour into a strainer made by folding a yard of 
thin muslin diagonally, and sewing the sides together, 
and hang up to drain. When the whey has drained out, 
season the cheese with salt, and add white pepper, if 
liked. Stir in enough sweet cream to moisten, or, in the 
absence of that, use sour cream or butter enough to flavor 
nicely. Serve cold. When the milk is made too hot 
or heated too long the curd is hard and tough, instead 
of soft and creamy, as it should be. Cottage cheese may be 
made by putting the sour milk into a vessel sufficiently 
large to admit of enough boiling water being poured onto 
the milk to coagulate it. Proceed as before. 

Rennet is used to coagulate the casein in order to sepa- 
rate it from the whey. Fresh-made cheese is not palat- 
able, and has little market value. 

Cheese is a valuable article of food to combine with 
other foods, both on account of its giving greater palata- 



CHEESE. 235 

bility and greater food value. It can well be combined 
with milk or with eggs, as in macaroni with cheese, cheese 
souffle, cheese toast, welsh rarebit, etc. 
French Cheese. 

France produces many varieties of cheese. Among the 
most famous are the Roquefort, Gruyere, Port du Salut, 
Brie, Camembert, and Neufchatel. The Roquefort is a 
rich, creamy cheese, made from the milk of ewes. The 
veined appearance of this cheese is due to the mold in- 
serted by the peasantry who manufacture the cheese. It 
is stated that in no other place are the conditions so favor- 
able to the growth of bacteria which give to this cheese 
its characteristic flavor. The Gruyere is a thick, firm 
cheese used in cooking. Port du Salut is a soft, creamy 
cheese, delicately flavored, made at Bordeaux. It is of no 
interest to people in general, as it is not used until ripened 
almost to decay. Neufchatel is a rich, creamy, white 
cheese, somewhat resembling cottage cheese. It is used 
as a dessert cheese. Camembert is a small hand-made 
cheese, which is not considered ready for use until first 
covered with a white mold, then with a green mold out- 
side of that. The Brie is a large, soft cheese, resembling 
Camembert. 

Holland Cheese. 

The Gouda and Edam are Holland cheeses. The Edam 
is a rich cheese, though rather hard. It is round in shape, 
and colored red on the outside. 
English Cheese. 

Of the English cheeses, the Stilton and Double Glou- 
cester may be taken as representatives of those in which 
much cream is used in the manufacture. Gloucester is a 
cheese mild in flavor, and is a fine cheese for cooked cheese 
dishes. The Stilton belongs to the same class of cheese, 
but is so well cured that it has a very strong flavor. The 
Cheddar is a famous English cheese. It is pale in color, 
a little less rich than the Double Gloucester, and has a deli- 



236 HOUSEHOLD SCIENCE. 

cious flavor. Parmesan is less rich in fat than either of 
the others. It is a large, very hard cheese, which must 
be grated for use, but gives a fine flavor to macaroni and 
some other cooked dishes. The Parmesan is colored and 
artificially flavored with saffron. 
American Cheese. 

The American cheeses are of most interest to Ameri- 
cans. The bulk of the cheese made in America is man- 
ufactured by some form of the cheddar or sour-curd 
process, as distinguished from the sweet-curd process un- 
der which most of the above-named cheese is made. In 
this process the milk is warmed, rennet, an extract from 
calf's stomach, is added to coagulate the casein, and the 
curd is then cut into small cubical pieces with a many- 
bladed knife, and kept warm until it shrinks to expel 
most of the moisture, called "whey." The whey is then 
drawn off from the vat. It carries away most of the 
milk, sugar, and ash, and some of the fat, though the fat, 
being in small solid particles, and not in solution, as in 
case of the sugar and ash, is mostly held in the meshes 
of the coagulated casein. The curd is further heated and 
manipulated to make it firm, and it is then placed under 
pressure for a day or so, and more of the whey is pressed 
out. In the press, the curd is molded into cylindrical 
shapes, a foot or more in diameter, and six inches or less 
in thickness ; or, in Young Americas, about six inches in 
diameter, and six to eight inches long. The cheese is then 
cured for several weeks in a curing room at an ordinary 
summer temperature. This process makes a cheese the 
most universally relished, at least by Americans and En- 
glishmen. When made from whole milk, these cheeses are 
known as "Full Cream Cheddars," "Flats," and "Young 
Americas." When butter making is combined with the 
manufacture of cheese, and part of the butter fat is re- 
moved before the milk is made into cheese, the cheese 
manufactured is called "skim." A national law requir- 
ing manufacturers to tell the truth about adulterations 



CHEESE. 237 

or modified products would be a great benefit alike to 
producers and consumers. Cheddar cheese is often used 
in cooking, and experiments showing how its use could 
be extended in making many appetizing and nourishing 
dishes might profitably be made. 

CHEESE COOKERY. 

Why is cheese not more extensively used for food in 
this country? There are two chief reasons. One is that 
people do not appreciate its value as a food material. If 
they realized that twenty-eight per cent, of cheese is pro- 
tein, and thirty-five per cent, is fat, they would question 
the advisability of looking elsewhere for a cheaper muscle- 
forming and heat-producing food. A pound of cheese and 
a pound and a half of the best sirloin steak represent 
about the same amount of food value. The cheese has a 
little more nutriment in it. The other reason for using so 
little cheese may be found in the prevalent belief that 
cheese is indigestible. Experiments prove that people are 
mistaken in this. Cheese is slow of digestion, but very 
nearly all is digested. According to Kpnig, cheese is ben- 
eficial in the diet not only on account of the amount of 
digestible nutrients it contains, but because it aids in the 
digestion of some other foods. 

As to the digestibility of raw cheese there seems to be 
still a difference of opinion. The Scotch and Swiss peo- 
ple are known to experience no difficulty in digesting it. 
Probably Americans would have less trouble if they knew 
that it contains more protein than almost any other food, 
and would take small amounts of it in the place of meat, 
instead of in addition to meat or eggs. It is often eaten 
at the end of a meal, when the stomach is already over- 
loaded, and must rid itself of the great amount of protein 
which has been forced into it. Cheese should be eaten 
often, rather than in large quantities at one time. 

All protein foods, if eaten cooked, give best results 
when subjected for a long time to a gentle heat while 



238 HOUSEHOLD SCIENCE. 

cooking. Experience hitherto leads to the belief that this 
statement is true. In the case of egg cookery, a high heat 
hardens the albumen, and evaporates much of the liquid, 
leaving a shrunken, leathery mass. In cooking meat 
(boiling, for instance), the albumen is hardened, the con- 
nective tissue softened and dissolved, so that there are 
simply long, practically tasteless fibres, instead of juicy, 
palatable, tender lean meat. 

When milk is heated to the boiling point, the albumen 
of the milk forms a tough scum over the top, and the milk 
has a poorer flavor than when kept at a lower heat. 

Vegetable casein, such as is found in beans, peas and 
lentils, is subject to the same general rule. In order to be 
most palatable, and furnish the greatest amount of nutri- 
tion to the body, such foods must be cooked slowly, and 
for a long time. 

Cheese is a highly concentrated protein food, manu- 
factured from milk. Raw cheese is very generally slow in 
digestion, often causing serious disturbance and distress. 
When cheese is cooked with eggs or milk, and the general 
rule for cooking protein foods is followed, it is found 
agreeable in flavor, and much more easily assimilated. 
Cheese should not be exposed directly to the heat, as it 
is when toasted on crackers, etc., as this renders it hard 
and leathery. When mixed with eggs or milk before 
cooking, it is soft and creamy, and a portion of it ap- 
parently dissolved. In this case, the heat is a medium 
one and cannot rise so high as it otherwise would. Suc- 
cess in cheese cookery depends somewhat on the kind of 
cheese used. A skim-milk cheese is tough when raw, 
and very difficult to use successfully in cooked dishes. 
Such cheese contains much nutritive material, but the nu- 
trients are not very valuable unless they can be put into di- 
gestible form. When one is compelled to use a stringy 
cheese a little baking soda thrown into the dish just as the 
cheese begins to melt will obviate the difficulty somewhat, 
but the product is never quite so nice as with a full-cream 



CHEESE. 239 

cheese. A little baking soda (an amount equal to half 
the size of a pea) added to a cup of grated cheese, or to 
the ingredients of any cooked cheese dish, is believed by 
some to divide the cheese into finer particles, and thus 
render it easier of digestion. A filled cheese is never sat- 
isfactory for cooked dishes, and is less valuable as a food 
than a properly made cheese. Brick cheese, though a 
whole milk cheese, as found in some markets, is very un- 
satisfactory for cooking. This may not be true of all 
brick cheese. Some persons prefer to use imported cheese, 
rather than risk a mistake by using American cheese. 
The Double Gloucester, a cheese mild in flavor and rich in 
fat, is excellent in cooked dishes. Parmesan is a skim- 
milk cheese of Italian manufacture, and is, contrary to 
the general rule, highly prized in some cooked dishes. 
The absence of stringiness is probably due to a difference 
in ripening. 

Grated cheese beaten into eggs, as in making omelets, 
makes a palatable and wholesome dish. The cheese, sur- 
rounded by the egg and slowly cooked, is soft and palat- 
able. Of a dish similar to the cheese omelet, Mattieu Wil- 
liams says: "I have made many a hearty dinner on one 
of these, plus a lump of black bread," etc. His meal con- 
sisted of nothing in addition to the omelet and bread ex- 
cept a beverage, and he adds : "I have tested the sustain- 
ing power of such a meal by doing some very stiff moun- 
tain climbing and long fasting after it. It is rather too 
good — over nutritious — for a man doing sedentary work." 
He further states that the cost of such a meal was about 
six cents. 

At ordinary prices, cheese and eggs will give us 
muscle-forming and fat-producing food in a very cheap 
form in this country also. 

One can easily test the difference in digestibility, or 
ease with which the food is assimilated, by eating a goodly 
amount of raw cheese for supper one evening, and taking 



:240 HOUSEHOLD SCIENCE. 

a dish of cooked cheese another time. Macaroni with 
cheese is a highly nutritious and very generally liked 
cooked cheese dish. 

When milk, eggs, and cheese are used together, the 
dish containing the mixture should be set in a pan of 
water in the oven, and cooked the same as a custard. A 
similar dish may be made by mixing grated cheese and 
bread crumbs in equal parts in a dish, and pouring the 
custard over them, and baking in the same way. Toasted 
bread or toasted crackers may be eaten with cooked cheese 
dishes. 

Cheese Timbales. 

Break three eggs into a bowl, and beat as for custard. 
Put into these a cup of sweet milk and salt to taste (the 
exact amount of salt cannot be given as cheese varies 
much in saltiness). Stir in one-fourth of a cupful of 
grated cheese. Into this mixture pour three-fourths of a 
cup of milk, and mix well. Pour into greased cups, or 
timbale molds, and set the cups in a pan of water, and 
bake until firm in the center. Too long baking will make 
them watery, the same as custard. ■ 

Cheese Timbales— Class Rule. 

One-fourth cup of sweet milk, one small egg, one- 
fourth teaspoonful of salt, two level tablespoonfuls of 
cheese (grated). Make as above, and bake in crumbed 
timbale molds until firm, but not watery. 

Potato Puffs with Cheese. 

One cup of mashed potatoes, one-fourth cup of sweet 
milk, one teaspoonful of butter. Beat together until 
thoroughly mixed. Break into this one egg, add one-half 
a level teaspoonful of salt, and a dash of pepper. Beat 
until light, then beat in three tablespoonfuls of grated 
cheese. Bake in muffin tins in a slow oven ten or fifteen 
minutes. 
Cheese Straws. 

Take the scraps of pastry left from making pies, roll on 



CHEESE. 241 

a cold board with a cold rolling pin until thin, then sprinkle 
well with grated cheese, and lightly with salt. Roll up by 
folding over and over, roll thin again, cut in small strips, 
lay in the pan. Sprinkle lightly with salt and bountifully 
with cheese, and bake until brown and crisp. 

Cheese Strata. 

Butter a baking dish, and in the bottom place thin slices 
of bread, just enough to cover the bottom. Cover the 
bread with a white sauce, then a layer of grated cheese 
one-quarter of an inch thick, then another layer of bread, 
more white sauce, and more cheese. Continue in this way 
until the desired amount is in the dish, having cheese on 
top. Cover the top with seasoned bread crumbs and bake 
in a slow oven fifteen or twenty minutes. Serve in dish 
in which it is baked. 

Cheese Fondu. 

One egg yolk, beaten light. Add to this one-fourth cup 
of white sauce, beating constantly, two tablespoonfuls of 
fine bread crumbs, one-fourth cup of cheese, grated or 
cut fine. Fold in the beaten egg white. Pour into a but- 
tered omelet pan. Bake in a slow oven ten or fifteen 
minutes. Dust with salt and pepper, and serve on a warm 
plate while hot. 

Cheese Pudding'. 

One pint milk, two eggs, one pint of bread crumbs, one 
and one-half cups of grated cheese, one-half tablespoonful 
of salt, a little soda. Put the milk into a buttered baking 
dish, add the beaten eggs, the crumbs, the cheese, grated, 
salt, and soda, which have been mixed. Bake in a moder- 
ate oven until brown on top. 
Welsh Rarebit. 

One cup of cheese, grated, one-fourth cup of sweet 
cream, yolk of one egg, well beaten, one-half tablespoonful 
of butter, one-fourth teaspoonful of salt, one-fourth tea- 
spoonful of mustard and less of pepper. Put the cheese 



242 HOUSEHOLD SCIENCE. 

into a double boiler with one-half tablespoonful of but- 
ter. Put the butter in first. When the cheese is melted, 
stir in the egg yolk and the cream, which have been 
mixed together and seasoned with the mustard, salt and 
pepper. Stir until well mixed, but do not allow to cur- 
dle. 

Cheese Souffle — Home Rule. 

Two tablespoonfuls of butter, one and one-half table- 
spoonfuls of flour, one-half cup of milk, one cup of 
grated cheese, three eggs, one-half teaspoonful of salt, 
cayenne pepper, a dash. Make the white sauce, and pour 
over the beaten egg yolks. Stir the cheese into the white 
sauce, while hot. When cold, add whites, beaten stiff. 
Bake twenty to twenty-five minutes in a slow oven. Serve 
at once. 

Cheese Souffle — Class Rule. 

Two level teaspoonfuls of butter, three level teaspoon- 
fuls of flour, one-quarter cup of milk, salt, pepper, and 
mustard to taste, one egg, beaten separately, two table- 
spoonfuls of cheese. Make the sauce, and pour boiling 
hot over the beaten yolk, stir in the seasoning, then the 
cheese. When cool, pour over the beaten white, and care- 
fully fold together, and cook in a very moderate oven, 
same as a light omelet. 

Cheese Toast. 

Put one-half cup of grated cheese in a saucepan with 
one cup of whole milk and one teaspoonful of butter. Put 
over the fire, and when the cheese begins to melt, pour 
over it one well-beaten egg. Put again over the fire and 
cook until it thickens like a steamed custard. Stir con- 
stantly while heating. Season with one-fourth of a tea- 
spoonful of mustard, one-half teaspoonful of salt, and a 
dash of pepper, and turn over nicely-toasted bread. Serve 
hot. May cook over hot water, or set the saucepan on an 
asbestos mat and cook slowly, stirring constantly. 



CHEESE. 243 

Macaroni or Spaghetti with Cheese. 

Break one-half of a pound package of either paste into 
two quarts of boiling- salted water, and boil for thirty 
minutes. Drain well, and blanch in cold water. Melt 
two tablespoonfuls of butter, add the paste, one table- 
spoonful of salt, a little paprica, one cup milk, and three- 
fourths cup of grated cheese. Mix well, place in baking 
dish, cover with grated cheese, put buttered bread crumbs 
over the top, and bake in cool oven half an hour, or 
longer, if wished quite brown. 

Rice with Cheese. 

Use cold boiled rice. Butter a baking dish, and in the 
bottom put a one-inch layer of rice. Cover well with 
white sauce, and over this put a layer of grated cheese. 
Add more rice, more white sauce, and more cheese, until 
the dish is as full as desired, having a layer of cheese on 
the top. Over this sprinkle seasoned bread crumbs, and 
bake fifteen or twenty minutes in a moderate oven. Serve 
hot from the dish in which it is baked. Rice with cheese 
may be baked and served in individual escalop shells. 

Toasted Cheese Wafers or Crackers. 

Buy wafers of any shape desired, or crackers. Sprinkle 
grated cheese thickly over the top of the wafers or crack- 
ers, lay them in dripping pans, and place in an oven hot 
enough to brown a cracker in four or five minutes. 
Watch them closely, and remove from the oven when just 
a delicate brown. Serve them while warm. They should 
be crisp. Serve cheese wafers or cheese crackers with 
the salad course. 

Cheese Balls No. 1. 

One hard-boiled egg, cut in half. Take out the yolk, 
rub fine, and mix with it two level tablespoonfuls of 
find bread crumbs, and two teaspoonfuls of white sauce. 
Season with salt and pepper, and form into balls. 
Make one-half cup of white sauce ; when done, add two 



244 HOUSEHOLD SCIENCE. 

tablespoonfuls of cheese, hold over a slow fire, and stir 
constantly until melted, then put into this the balls, and 
heat. When hot, put the balls into the egg white cups, 
and pour over them the sauce. Prepare in same way the 
number of eggs desired. 

Cheese Balls No. 2. 

Use any cold cooked rice, — that cooked in milk pre- 
ferred. Use one cup of rice and one-third cup of grated 
cheese. Mix together, stir into it the well-beaten yolk of 
one egg, season with salt to taste, then fold in the egg 
white, beaten stiff. Form into balls, and bake in a slow 
oven ten minutes. Serve hot. Cheese balls are nice as 
a luncheon dish. 

Cheese Mushes. 

Cheese mav be used in all mushes made of wheat. Stir 
the grated cheese into the mush after it is cooked, but 
just before removing from the fire. Cheese requires little 
cooking. 

References: Chemistry of Cookery — Williams — pp. 135, 
138; also pp. 141-144; Minn. Bulletin No. 54, p. 77. 



CHAPTER XX. 



BEVERAGES— COFFEE. 



The United States imports its coffee principally from 
Central America, Mexico and Columbia. The following 
from Bulletin No. 13, United States Department of Ag- 
riculture, Division of Chemistry, gives a good idea of the 




Coffee Plant, Flower and Bean Pod. 

appearance of different coffees. Of the following state- 
ments, those in quotation marks are from the observations 
of Lascelles: 

" 'West India coffee is for the most part even-sized, 
pale and yellowish, firm and heavy, with firm aroma, los- 
ing little in weight by the roasting process. 



246 HOUSEHOLD SCIENCE. 

* 'Brazil coffee is larger, less solid, greenish or white, 
usually styled by the brokers "low" or "low middling." 

" 'J ava coffee is smaller, slightly elongated, pale in 
color, deficient in aroma and essential oil, and light.' 

' 'Ceylon produces coffee of all descriptions, but ordi- 
nary plantation coffees are even colored, slightly canoe 
shaped, strong in aroma and flavor, of considerable grav- 
ity, and admit better of adulteration than most other 
kinds.' 

"Mocha is usually considered the best coffee of com- 
merce. It is stated that East India coffees are sometimes 
shipped to Arabia, and exported from this latter country 
as genuine Mocha coffee. The seeds of the Mocha are 
small and dark yellow. 

"Java coffee, when new, is a pale yellow, and is then 
cheaper than when old and brown. This color is partly 
a result of the method of curing, in addition to the effects 
of age. The high price of Java has led to the coloring of 
cheaper grades with mineral pigments, or otherwise, in 
imitation of the favorite coffee. It may be well to state 
that this practice cannot be general, since no foreign color- 
ing matters are found in the Javas examined in the course 
of investigation treated of in this work, though it is prob- 
able that coffees colored by exposure to a high, moist 
heat may have escaped detection." 

The alkaloids of tea and coffee are about the same, both 
chemically and physiologically. That in coffee is known 
as "caffeine," and is smaller in amount than "theine," the 
alkaloid of tea. 

Ground coffee is sometimes adulterated by the use of 
cereals, beans, peas, and acorns. Chicory is probably 
the most-used adulterant. One test for chicory is to put 
a portion of ground coffee into a glass of cold water. A 
quick sinking, with a brown coloring of the water, indi- 
cates the presence of chicory. This is not an infallible 
test, for it is sometimes so prepared as to float. Cereals 
will sink, but with slight, if any, discoloration. 



BEVERAGES. 247 

There are many substitutes for coffee, as preparations 
of chicory, cereals, caramel, and legumes. 

Coloring is resorted to in whole coffee, as in tea, to give 
an inferior or damaged coffee the appearance of some- 
thing better. 

Coffee which is two-thirds Java and one-third Mocha is 
desirable. Two heaping tablespoonfuls to each pint of 
water makes a good coffee. The above coffee, when 
genuine, is expensive, and there are other mixtures mak- 
ing mild coffees which are cheaper and very desirable. 



i 

1 






If 


[ 


^■£§1^ 


jtt [y^M 













Old Time Coffee Pot and Hot-water Pot. 

As to whether coffee made with a cloth strainer allow- 
ing the beverage to trickle is better than coffee made with 
boiling water and cleared with egg depends upon indi- 
vidual taste. For settling coffee, nothing is better than 
egg white. The yolk should not be used, as it adds little 
to the coffee, and is good for salad dressing. 

Coffee Cleared with Egg— No. 1. 

Use the same quantity of coffee as given above, but not 
ground quite so fine. Put the coffee, a little egg white, or 



248 HOUSEHOLD SCIENCE. 

egg shell (perfectly clean), into a bowl, moisten with cold 
water, and mix well. Put into coffee pot, rinse the bowl, 
and use in all half the amount of boiling water necessary 
for the coffee. Let stand on stove until it boils, then let 
simmer about five minutes, or steep like tea, add the re- 
mainder of the boiling- water, pour out a cup of the coffee, 
pour back into the pot, add one tablespoonful of cold 
water, and serve. 

Coffee Cleared with Egg— No. 2. 

Beat an egg and mix with one cup of water in a bowl. 
With the egg and water mix five tablespoonfuls of ground 
coffee. Put into coffee pot. Pour a second cup of cold 
water into the bowl, rinse, and pour into coffee pot. Set 
on the range, and when it reaches the boiling point add the 
remaining pint of cold water. Let it reach the boiling 
point again, and pour in four or five tablespoonfuls of cold 
water to settle. Let set five minutes, and serve. 

Cereal Coffees. 

Make according to directions on the packages. 

Hygienic Coffee. 

Bran four quarts. Molasses one pint (best New Or- 
leans). Rub together with the hands, and brown nicely 
in the oven. To make coffee, use twice as much of this 
as of genuine coffee. Make in same manner as genuine 
coffee. 

Drip Coffee. 

When a coffee pot with a cloth bag or other strainer 
is used, it will be necessary to put into the bag two table- 
spoonfuls of ground coffee for each pint of water. Pour 
the water around the outer edge of the coffee, close to the 
sides of the pot first, and gradually approach the center, 
so that the dry coffee will not be forced against the sides 
of the strainer. Coffee should be ground quite fine, but 
not pulverized. When the water is on, cover, allow to 
trickle through, then pour on another third, and when this 



BEVERAGES. 



249 



has passed through, put on the remainder. Pouring on 
a little at a time removes the strength better, and if it is 
drawn off and poured over, it loses flavor when passing 
through the air. 

COCOA.* 

There are several small trees which belong to the genus 
Theobroma. These yield the seeds from which cocoa is 
made. The tree known as "Theobroma Cocoa" yields by 
far the greatest quantity and the most valuable of that 
found in commerce. The cocoa tree does not grow high. 
It seldom exceeds sixteen to eighteen feet, but grows 




Cocoa Pods and Leaves. 

higher in the native forests than it does under cultivation. 
This tree, like the fig, has flowers and fruit in different 
stages of growth at the same time. The ripe bean-bearing 
pod is from seven to ten inches in diameter. The thick 
purplish yellow rind is hard and leathery. The surface 
is marked with ten very distinct longitudinal elevations. 
Each pod contains from twenty to forty seeds, or some- 
times more. These are imbedded in the delicately pink 
acid pulp which fills the interior of the pod, and are ar- 
ranged in five longitudinal rows. 

•Encyclopedia Brittanica. 



250 



HOUSEHOLD SCIENCE. 



The cocoa tree begins to bear the third or fourth year, 
but does not attain its full vigor until the eighth year. 
Under favorable circumstances, it should continue prolific 
for thirty or forty years. 

The cocoa gatherers cut off the ripe pods only by the use 
of curved knives on the ends of long poles. The fruit is 
left lying in heaps on the ground for twenty-four hours. 
The pods are then opened, and the seeds removed and car- 
ried in baskets to the sweating sheds. The seeds are 
freed from the pulp, and the acid juice drained off. Then 




Cocoa Pot and Cups. 



they are placed in sweating boxes, where they are allowed 
to remain for some time, the air about them being kept at 
a certain temperature. Sometimes they are buried in 
trenches. The process of sweating is then called "clay- 
ing." 

When the fermenting has proceeded far enough, the 
seeds are dried in the sun. The process of curing gives 
beans of the best quality a warm, reddish tint. Accord- 
ing to Encyclopedia Brittanica, Venezuela produces the 



BEVERAGES. 251 

finest beans of any country. This product is known in 
commerce as "Caracas Cocoa." The best quality of co- 
coa beans resemble plump almonds in size and shape. 

The husks are a brick red color, and the seed is easily 
broken, and falls into many irregular pieces when crushed. 
The kernels are astringent in taste, and have a mild, 
agreeable flavor. Different beans vary somewhat both in 
chemical composition and character. The following is 
given by Payen as the average composition : 

Fat (cocoa butter) 52 parts in 100. 

Nitrogenous compounds, 20 parts in 100. 

Starch, 10 parts in 100. 

Cellulose, 2 parts in 100. 

Theobromine, 2 parts in 100. 

Saline substances, 4 parts in 100. 

Water, 10 parts in 100. 

Cocoa red, traces. 

Essential oil, traces. 

Theobromine is the alkaloid of cocoa, and has the same 
physiological value as the theine of tea and coffee. The 
fat which is pressed from the bean is white and solid at 
ordinary temperatures. It has a pleasant taste and odor, 
and is remarkably free from any tendency to become ran- 
cid. 

Cocoa nibs are a simple and usually a pure form of 
manufactured cocoa. They are simply the shelled 
roasted bean, broken up. When the nibs are ground up 
into a coarse uniform paste, they form what is known as 
"cocoa flakes." This can be much more easily disinte- 
grated by cooking than the nibs can. In making extract 
of cocoa, a portion of the fat is removed from the bean, 
and it is then reduced to an extremely fine powder. This 
forms a drink more agreeable to some stomachs than the 
nibs or flakes because the fat is not present. The prepara- 
tions which are sold in the powdered forms offer a fine op- 
portunity for adulteration. According to Encyclopedia 
Brittanica, most of these preparations, whether sold as 



252 HOUSEHOLD SCIENCE. 

cocoa or chocolate, are mixtures of various substances 
with ground nibs, the object of the mixture being to mask 
the presence of the cocoa fat, and render the whole readily 
miscible with boiling water. 

The ordinary distinction between soluble cocoa and 
chocolate is that the cocoa is usually sold in the form of 
a powder, the chocolate being made up in cakes, which 
require to be scraped down, boiled, and frothed before 
being ready for drinking. 

The finely-ground cocoa, while still a warm and pasty 
mass, can be easily adulterated by mixing thoroughly with 
it arrow root, sugar, etc. Cocoa shells are also sometimes 
used to adulterate cocoa. 

Bulletin No. 13, United States Department of Agri- 
culture, Division of Chemistry, says : "There is probably 
no more abused or misleading term in the English lan- 
guage than the term 'soluble cocoa.' No cocoa in the mar- 
ket contains a very considerable percentage of matter solu- 
ble in water unless the material so dissolved is foreign 
soluble material that has been added during the process of 
preparation. The term seems to be used to denote a 
preparation that allows none of the insoluble matter to 
deposit from the beverage prepared from it. This purpose 
may be accomplished in two ways, — the material may be 
so finely divided that a very long time will be required for 
its deposition, or foreign substances (as starch or sugar) 
may be added to render the liquid of so high a specific 
gravity, or so pasty, that the insoluble part will not de- 
posit." 

The best sweet chocolates are combinations of choco- 
late and sugar alone, flavored with some aromatic sub- 
stance, usually vanilla. Into the cheaper grades some 
starchy substance often enters. The nibs for chocolate are 
brought to a pasty state in a heated mill, and the sugar, 
with whatever else is added, is thus thoroughly incor- 
porated in the milling process. The paste is further mixed 
by passing several times between horizontal rollers. It is 



BEVERAGES. 253 

at last put into a mold, and when cooled is ready for wrap- 
ping. 

To Make Cocoa. 

One and one-half level teaspoonfuls of cocoa for each 
cup. Place the cocoa in a granite cup, and stir in cold 
water enough to make a thin batter. Place on the fire, 
and stir until it thickens, then stir into it enough boiling 
water and milk (one-half milk and one-half water) to 
make a cup. 

Cocoa Made from Nibs. 

Put one cupful of cocoa shells and one generous table- 
spoonful of cocoa nibs into two quarts of boiling water, 
and let simmer for four hours. Strain and serve hot with 
sugar and cream. 

TEAS. 

Teas are prepared from the leaves of an evergreen 
shrub which is grown very extensively in China and 
Japan. Teas are divided into two classes, — black teas and 
green teas. They take their names from the color of the 
leaves, and the color depends upon the manner in which 
the leaves are cured. 

"The method of preparing tea differs in different coun- 
tries in which this commodity is grown. In India, the 
manufacturing processes are very much simplified, and the 
greatest portion, if not all of the work is accomplished by 
machinery ; thus the leaves only come in contact with the 
hands of the laborers in picking." 

"The method of manufacture of black teas in Japan 
is essentially as follows : The leaves are withered by ex- 
posure to the sun, fire being used only in cloudy or rainy 
weather. An hour's sunning is usually sufficient. After 
withering, the leaves are rolled and twisted. Black teas 
are usually rolled in an apparatus made especially for this 
purpose. The rolled leaves are now subjected to fermen- 
tation. This is a very important operation, since its in- 
fluence on the quality of the tea is considerable. During 



254 HOUSEHOLD SCIENCE. 

this operation trie leaves lose their disagreeable raw odor, 
and acquire a fine flavor and the desired tint. One method 
of fermenting the leaves is to make them up into small 
balls, which are placed in shallow bamboo trays, covered 
with a white cloth, and set aside in a sunny place. A 
second method is to spread the leaves in a tray, press them 
together, cover, and place them in a sunny place, as above. 
The progress of fermentation is determined by the ap- 
pearance of the leaves ; the full time required being about 
one hour. After fermentation, the leaves are exposed to 




Tea Pot and Hot Water Pot of a Century Ago. 

the sun in a thin layer. During this sunning the green 
color of the leaves gradually changes to black. 

"The next process is the 'firing.' The leaves are placed 
in a tray over a charcoal fire, and the temperature gradu- 
ally increased as the moisture is driven off. The leaves 
are constantly turned, to insure uniform drying. The 
leaves are transferred to another tray, carefully mixed, 
and the drying repeated until they are dry. The final 
operation consists in passing the leaves through sieves 
of different meshes, and packing. The tea is divided into 
three classes, depending upon the size of the leaves, viz., 
Pekoe (the leaf bud), Souchong and Bohea. 

"As already stated, these manipulations are very much 



BEVERAGES. 255 

simplified in India. According to Col. Money, the opera- 
tions practiced in the older tea countries have been reduced 
from twelve to five. 

"Teas are adulterated in various ways. A process 
known as facing is frequently resorted to, and is a coloring 
of the leaves. Exhausted leaves are sometimes mixed 
with tea. Foreign leaves are sometimes added. Gunpow- 
der and other fine teas are especially adapted to adultera- 
tion by the use of fragments of foreign leaves. It is be- 
lieved that under the laws now in force the adulteration 
of teas is practiced very much less than formerly."" 

Green teas are prepared by first steaming, then roll- 
ing, slowly drying, sorting by sieves, then facing. Japan- 
ese teas are prepared under better sanitary conditions than 
Chinese teas. 
To Make Tea. 

To make green tea, heat the teapot with boiling water. 
Pour the water out, put the tea in (one teaspoonful to 
each cup) and pour on enough fresh-boiled water to thor- 
oughly saturate it. Set the pot back on the stove where 
it will keep hot, but not boil, and let the tea steep from 
five to ten minutes, then pour on the quantity of hot 
water needed, and serve; or pour water all on at once, 
and let steep. 

To make black or Oolong tea, use two teaspoonfuls 
to each pint of water, and proceed same as in making green 
tea. 

Ceylon or English breakfast teas are better steeped at 
table, as they deteriorate in flavor by standing. Only 
freshly-boiled water should be used in making tea, as the 
gases present in water give a pleasant odor, and boiling 
drives them off. 

*U. S. Dept. of Ayr.. Division of Chemistry, Bui. 13. pt. 7. 
References: Chambers' Enc. p. 114; Enc. Brit., "Tea," 
"Coffee;" Johnston's Enc, "Tea," "Coffee," and "Chocolate," 
pp. 50, 376, 377; Buckeye Cook Book, pp. 204-207; Parloa's 
Kitchen Companion, pp. 818, 819, 822-824; Art of Cookery — 
Ewing— pp. 77, 78; Art of Cooking for Invalids— Jack— pp. 
151, 152. 



CHAPTER XXI. 



SOUPS AND SOUP MAKING. 



If we will prepare tempting soups of the scraps of meat, 
bones, etc., we will aid in preventing- the habit of over-eat- 
ing, to which our progress in civilization has led us. 
Formerly very simple diet was found satisfactory, but now 
the four corners of the earth are ransacked to supply us 




Soup Tureen, Ladle and Coups. 

with the things which will most tempt our appetites. 
Soup may aid in overcoming the habit of rapid eating, 
if not of overeating, for, if taken at the beginning of the 
meal, it is very satisfying. Soup is ready to at once be 
absorbed by the vessels of the stomach, and therefore re- 
lieves the feeling of hunger, and hence one becomes in- 
clined to eat more leisurely. 

To be successful in soup making, the cook must know 



SOUPS AND SOUP MAKING. 257 

the taste of a good soup, and make that the guide in 
strength, flavor, and seasoning. Use up all the scraps 
of meat, either cooked or raw, but cook them separately, 
that is, cook the raw meat a little before putting the cooked 
meat into the kettle. Meat broths cooked in this way 
should not be flavored, and should be seasoned with salt 
only. They are conveniently used in gravies and purees 
when there is not a sufficient quantity to form a soup for 
a meal, and, if flavored, they would be spoiled for this 
purpose. 

A great many soups are made without the previous 
preparation of a distinct stock ; but stock is the base of 
many soups, and its manner of compounding is essential 
to a perfect understanding of soup making. 

Stock is the juices and the soluble parts of meat, bone, 
etc., held in the water in which they have been drawn out 
by proper cooking. This liquid has, when cold, a pleas- 
ant, meat-like flavor, and a jelly-like consistency, owing to 
the harmonious combination of the materials of which it 
is composed, and the gelatine which has been drawn from 
the cartilagenous portions. The lean portions alone will 
not form a jelly. It is for this reason that round of beef 
only is used in making bouillon to be served cold. The 
stock will have a better flavor if the bones and meat are 
in small pieces when put to cook, as the water will thus 
remove more of the soluble parts. 

To Make Soup Stock. 

Select a shin or shank of beef containing as much lean 
meat as bone, and, to get the best results, cut the meat into 
small pieces, and have the bone sawed in short lengths, 
and put to cook in cold water. This will allow the water 
to draw more flavor from both meat and bone. Use with 
this any trimmings or tough pieces of raw meat, provided 
it is beef. Put the meat into the kettle and pour in cold 
water to cover one inch deep. Add about half the amount 

9 



258 HOUSEHOLD SCIENCE. 

of salt it will probably need, let heat up gently, and when 
hot, simmer for several hours. After it has cooked for 
four hours, put into a spider, with some hot ham or bacon 
fat, a pint of onions, carrots, parsnips, and white turnips 
mixed in equal parts, and cook until brown. Put into the 
soup kettle, rinse the spider, and pour the contents into 
the kettle, and let simmer half an hour. Pour the con- 
tents of the kettle into a colander. When the stock has 
all drained out, set aside to cool. Leave the grease over 
the top unless wishing to use the soup right away, be- 
cause the fat causes it to keep better. Remove the cold 
fat in a lump. If you have not time to let cool, pour a 
little cold water into the hot soup to aid in bringing the 
fat at once to the top, dip off what you can, and remove 
the rest with paper, placing white or unglazed paper, a 
piece at a time, on the surface of the liquid. The liquid 
should be of an amber color, and will be if the vegetables 
are browned enough. Always save the rinsings from the 
roasting pans for gravies. 

Cook peppercorns with meat, allowing three pepper- 
corns to a quart of water in making soup stock (if pepper 
is desired) as this gives the flavor of pepper without the 
cloudy appearance necessary with ground pepper. It 
is wise to place an asbestos mat under the soup kettle. 
It is much better to have soup stock cook slowly, and the 
asbestos mat aids in preventing t6o great heat, after the 
contents are all thoroughly heated through, in the kettle. 

To Color Soup Stock. 

There are several ways in which an amber color may be 
imparted to soup. The following method is perhaps most 
satisfactory from all standpoints : Place the soup meat in 
a hot spider, or iron kettle, containing a little fat, and stir 
about until it browns, but let no particle of it burn. When 
it is nicely browned, put it into the soup kettle, cover with 
cold water, as for soup making, rinse the vessel in which 
it was cooked, and add the water used to the kettle. 



SQUPS AND SOUP MAKING. 259 

Another excellent way to color soup stock is to use the 
bits of roast and bones from steak left by the carver on. 
the meat platter. Add the rinsing from roasting pans and 
meat spiders, when not needed for gravy, and little extra 
coloring will be necessary. 

A third way to color the stock is by browning the veg- 
etables to be used before putting them to cook for the 
soup, and add the water in which they were cooked to 
the stock. 

A fourth method is to make a meat caramel by evapo- 
rating meat broth to a syrupy consistency, and then al- 
low it to brown, but not burn. This may be kept for a 
short time if put into a sterilized glass jar, and sealed 
while hot. 

Meat extract for coloring soup may be bought, but the 
flavor is not so fine as the home-made caramel. Both the 
boughten extract and that made at home must be kept 
closely sealed. 

A fifth and less desirable method is to use a sugar 
caramel made in the same way as a meat caramel, except 
that a syrup made from sugar and water is used as a 
basis. 

Reasons for Using Cold Water in Making Soup Stock. 

When a piece of meat is immersed in boiling water, a 
coating of coagulated albumen is formed on the outside. 
This largely prevents the escape of the meat juices. Meat 
surrounded by cold water remains soft, and its juices are 
drawn out gradually as the water heats. 

Reasons for Cooking Vegetables in Water, Rather than in 
the Soup. 

Cooking vegetables in the soup usually gives the soup 
a flavor which is less delicate than when the vegetables 
are cooked in water. The soup stock is apt -to be over- 
cooked, if vegetables are added to it to be cooked. 
What Meats should be Cooked Together in Soup Stock. 

Chicken and veal may be used together, and either may 
be used with beef, but mutton, pork, and turkey should' 



260 HOUSEHOLD SCIENCE. 

each be cooked alone, and the broths used alone, except in 
mixed soups, where their flavors are toned down or dis- 
guised by the use of various vegetables and other fla- 
vorings. A very little ham or bacon is sometimes used in 
other meat stocks, but not enough so that the flavor is no- 
ticeable. 

Vegetables Used for Flavoring Different Soup Stocks. 

In making chicken broth, cook a stalk of celery, a blade 
of mace, or a bit of onion with each fowl. For veal, use 
the same materials, but less of them. 

In making beef stock, use onions, carrots, turnips, and 
celery. Cabbage may be used, also, but it is apt to so 
assert itself as to obscure largely all other flavors. 

In a mixed broth, many vegetables and herbs may be 
used, but all must be added in such quantities as to pre- 
serve harmony, and produce a pleasant flavor. None of 
the flavoring materials should be in a powdered form, as' 
they impair the beauty of the liquids. Some of the herbs 
commonly used in soup are described in the article on 
condiments and spices. Those who wish highly-flavored 
soups can buy the herbs and spices already mixed, and 
add the amount desired half an hour before straining the 
stock. 

Meat broths are usually just plain meat stock seasoned 
with salt and pepper. A bit of parsley may be added to 
lamb or mutton broth. 

What to Serve in Soups. 

Bouillon should be well colored, strong, clear, and serv- 
ed with nothing in it. Clear soup, or consomme, should be 
clear, amber colored, of medium strength, and flavored 
with herbs and vegetables. It may have something served 
in it, but all things which cloud it, or interfere with its 
clearness in any way, should be excluded. 

Beef broth may have some cereal, as barley, served 
in it. 



SOUPS AND SOUP MAKING. 261 

Many kinds of paste, as the long, slender strips of vermi- 
celli, the rings of macaroni and the many fanciful forms 
of paste to be found on the market, as well as noodles, may 
also be used in a beef soup. Chicken broth may have 
rice, noodles, or some of the various forms of paste 
served in it. Mutton or lamb broth is best with parsley, 
rice or barley served in it. Veal broth admits of about the 
same things as chicken broth. Bean and tomato soup are 
especially nice with croutons. 

All cereals, vegetables, and pastes are cooked in water 
before being added to the soups. Mixed vegetable soups 
admit all vegetables which taste well together. These 
vegetables are simply chopped, or are cut in fancy shapes, 
-as desired. 

Soup sticks, bread fingers, crisped crackers, or toast 
strips may be served with soup. 

When it is necessary to scald soup in order to preserve 
it in warm weather, be sure that it boils. Merely heating 
without boiling does no good. 

Croutons. 

Cut slices of stale bread, buttered, into squares (small), 
and brown in the oven. Serve with pea soup, bean soup, 
or tomato soup. Croutons may be fried in deep fat, but 
baking in the oven is preferable. 

Noodles for Soup. 

Break an egg into a bowl, add one- fourth of a teaspoon- 
ful of salt, and stir in a generous half cup of flour. Knead 
well. Roll as thin as possible, let lie on the molding 
board until it can be rolled like jelly cake without the 
paste sticking together. When rolled, cut off in strips 
one-eighth of an inch wide, shake out. Put two quarts 
or plenty of water over the fire in a kettle or saucepan, and 
add one tablespoonful of salt to two quarts of water. 
When boiling, put in the noodles, and cook rapidly three- 
fourths of an hour. Serve in noodle broth, chicken or 
veal broth. 



262 HOUSEHOLD SCIENCE. 

Thickening for Soup. 

Most thickened soups have about the consistency of 
cream. Some authorities direct that purees be made 
thicker, but since they are in the category of soups, there 
seems no good reason for doing so. 

When butter and flour are used for thickening, save out 
half the soup stock, if it is cold, put the butter and flour 
in a saucepan, and, when melted, pour the soup stock on 
them, stir until it boils, and then add to the rest of the 
ingredients. If it is hot, have it very strong, and use a 
cup of water with the thickening, or have it hot, of the 
right strength, and mix the butter and flour together 
perfectly, put on the end of a wooden spoon, put into 
the liquid, and stir until the mixture melts slowly from 
the spoon, and thickens the soup as desired. When corn- 
starch or arrowroot is used, mix smoothly with a little 
water in a saucepan, then pour on a little hot soup, pour- 
ing slowly and stirring rapidly to prevent lumping. 
When well mixed, add to the contents of the kettle, and 
stir until smooth and well cooked. 

The amount of thickening given in the following for- 
mulae is simply enough to give body to the soup, and 
prevent the vegetables settling. Those desiring a thick 
puree or cream must use twice the given amount of thick- 
ening material. Split peas and cooked tomatoes may be 
used without straining, and simply form soups, but both 
are nicer when strained and made into purees. Most veg- 
etables need straining to remove the woody portion, as 
the covering of beans and the woody, stringy portions of 
asparagus and celery. 

CLASSES OF SOUPS. 

There are many varieties of soup, but few distinct 
classes. A plain soup is a simple stock of either meat or 
vegetable origin. It may contain one kind of meat or 
vegetable, or more than one kind; but the distinguishing 
feature is the absence of elaboration. No attempt is made 



• SOUPS AND SOUP MAKING. 263 

at display. It is simply seasoned with salt and pepper. 
Beef soup is an example. A clear soup has a meat-stock 
basis, either simple or compound. Such a soup must be 
perfectly clear, colored a beautiful amber, and nicely 
flavored with vegetables. Herbs are added if desired. 
Example, chicken consomme. A vegetable soup may 
have a mixture of various vegetables cooked in water and 
seasoned, or meat broth may be added also. When a 
stock is made simply by cooking vegetables in water and 
straining it is called a vegetable stock. Example, toma- 
to soup. A cream soup has milk as the distinguishing 
characteristic, and may be made from a meat stock, as 
cream of chicken, or from a vegetable stock, as cream of 
celery. Mixed soups form a sixth and last distinct class 
of soups. These are made by uniting two or more of the 
others, in proper proportion. 

Emergency Beef Tea. 

Cut round steak into small pieces, free from fat, put 
into a saucepan, granite or porcelain, cover with cold 
water about one inch, and add one-fourth teaspoonful of 
salt to each cup of water. Heat gradually to nearly the 
boiling point and let simmer twenty minutes, press with 
a spoon to free the juice, strain and serve. 

Beef Tea. 

Prepare the beef as for Emergency Beef Tea, put in a 
glass fruit jar, add one-half cup of cold water to each 
pound of meat, put the cover loosely on the jar and set 
in a kettle of cold water on a support. Heat gradually 
to the boiling point, and let simmer two or three hours, 
then strain, pressing out as much juice as possible, and 
serve. 

Beef Essence. 

Prepare the steak as for beef tea, and put in a jar with- 
out any water; put the jar in a kettle of cold water, and 
finish the same as beef tea. 



264 HOUSEHOLD SCIENCE. 

Beef Juice. 

Sear a piece of round steak on both sides, and heat it 
enough so that the juices may be extracted by squeezing 
with a lemon squeezer or a meat press. (Cut in small 
pieces before squeezing.) Put the juice into a warm 
cup, and if still too cool to serve, set the cup in water be- 
low 180° F. If the juice is heated above 180 F., the 
albumen will coagulate. If it is desirable to have the 
juice absolutely free from any possibility of a smoky 
taste, put the meat in a granite basin, and heat over water 
until each outer surface is white, then cut in small pieces, 
and squeeze. 

Beef Broth with Tomato — Home Rule. 

Two cups of beef broth, one generous half cup of 
strained tomato. Season with one-fourth teaspoonful 
of salt and a dash of pepper. 

Beef Broth with Tomato — Class Rule. 

One-half cup of broth, two tablespoonfuls of tomato. 
Salt and pepper to taste. 

To Make Lamb or Mutton Broth. 

Choose the neck, and be sure that it is perfectly 
cleansed. Remove the outer thin skin. To have the best 
results, have the meat cut into two-inch lengths. Put into 
the kettle, press down well, and cover to the depth of one 
inch with cold water. Cook slowly four or five hours. 
Strain through a colander, and allow the fat to remain 
over the top until the broth is needed. Remove all the 
fat before using. A little cold water poured into the hot 
soup will help make the fat rise to the top. Parsley, rice 
or barley may be appropriately served in lamb or mutton 
broth. 
To Make Turkey Broth. 

Put the bones, skins, and refuse bits of turkey in a 
saucepan with some trimmings of celery. Add a tea- 
spoonful of salt, and sufficient water to cover the bones, 
simmer for three hours, strain, and remove the grease. 



SOUPS AND SOUP MAKING. 265 

Tomatoes or rice are appropriate with turkey broth. Tur- 
key broth is much less delicate than chicken, but is en- 
joyed by some. 

Noodle Broth. 

One pint of milk, two teaspoonfuls of flour, and two 
teaspoonfuls of butter put together as for a white sauce. 
Add one level teaspoonful of salt, a dash of pepper, and a 
drop of onion juice. To this add one-half cup of cooked 
noodles. Bring to the boiling point and serve. 

CLEAR SOUP, OR CONSOMME. 

To clear the soup, use the whites of the eggs only. To 
every two. pints of stock allow one large egg white*. The 
entire egg may be used, but the white only gives a better 
flavor and the yolk can be easily used in salad dressing. 
Wash the shell before breaking, and put it in also. Mix 
the egg in the cold stock, and beat well together. Place 
over the fire and stir constantly until it boils, then stop 
stirring, and let boil until a perfectly clear liquid appears 
below the scum, then strain through a cloth. If the soup 
does not boil long enough, it will be cloudy after strain- 
ing. 

The fat must be all removed from the top of any soup 
before serving. A clear soup is appropriately served 
without anything in it, or it may have anything which will 
harmonize with the broth, and not cloud the soup. Clear 
soup is often called "consomme." A consomme made of 
beef broth alone may have added to it pearl barley well 
cooked, drained, and rinsed. One of the numerous 
pastes, as vermicelli, or macaroni, cut into very short pieces 
or rings, Italian paste or letters, spaghetti, etc. A good 
rule is, add nothing which will cloud the soup. 
Julienne Soup. 

This is simply a clear soup to which vegetables cut in 
fancy shapes are added. The vegetables may be cut in 
long, slender, match-like pieces. Use well-cooked and 



266 



HOUSEHOLD SCIENCE. 



rinsed green peas on account of the color, but most vege- 
tables should be either long, or some fancy shape. 

Chicken Consomme. 

This stock is made in the same way as directed for clear 
soup, except to each fowl use about one pound of lean 
beef, and simply put the breast in on top long enough 
to cook it, and take it out, letting the beef fill its place 
in making the stock. Cook with the chicken two small 
stalks of celery. This is specially nice with rice or noo- 
dles, or any of the before-mentioned pastes. There are 
many varieties of soup made from clear stock, and each 




c r\ 



Bouillon Cup. 

takes its name from the material served in it. When 
served without any additions, they are called "amber 
soup," "plain consomme," etc. 

Mullagatawny Soup. 

To a chicken broth made as above, but not cleared, add 
bits of chicken cut in small cubes, season, and just before 
serving add a teaspoonful of curry powder, or as much as 
is needed to season it very highly. May leave out the 
diced chicken, and use rice instead. 

When flavoring other soups, never use powdered spices, 
as they form a sediment at the bottom of the plate, and 
spoil the appearance. Whole cloves and other spices 



SOUPS AND SOUP MAKING. 267 

should be stuck into the vegetables while boiling. Whole 
pepper is superior to ground, but it requires several hours 
boiling. 

Bouillon. 

Make and clear the stock the same as for clear soup, 
but have the stock stronger and darker than for clear 
soup, and use lean meat without bone in making the 
stock. Serve bouillon in cups, and always plain. Bouil- 
lon is generally made of best round. When bouillon is 
to be served cold, this is necessary to prevent its jellying, 
but when served hot, it is just as well to use bone with 
the meat, the only necessity being to have it strong, dark, 
and clear, with a fine flavor. 

MIXED SOUPS. 

Soups made from two or more different broths wisely 
combined and flavored delicately with vegetables and 
other suitable materials are among our most palatable 
dishes, but, like other good things, they require extra 
skill in their preparation. In a mixture of veal and chick- 
en broth, use such vegetables for flavoring as celery, 
onions, and parsley. For a mixture of beef, mutton, etc., 
use cloves, bay leaf, sweet marjoram, a little tomato or 
catsup. Sometimes butter and flour browned together 
harmonize with the other ingredients of the mixture. 
Never mix mutton and beef unless you use vegetables to 
disguise the mutton flavor. Do not use turkey or ham 
broth, except in vegetable soups, and then very little. 

Stock for Aspic Jelly. 

One pound of beef for the flavor, one knuckle of veal 
to furnish the gelatine, one-eighth pound of bacon, one- 
fourth of a small turnip, one-fourth of a parsnip, three 
cloves, six peppercorns, one-half a small onion, one-half 
carrot, one celery root, one parsley root, one blade of 
mace, three allspice berries, one teaspoonful of Worces- 



268 HOUSEHOLD SCIENCE. 

tershire sauce, one teaspoonful of chopped lemon rind, 
one-half of a bay leaf, one teaspoonful of salt, water to 
cover the meat. Cook the bacon in the kettle, then brown 
the onions in the bacon fat. Add the beef in small pieces, 
and brown it also. Put the cold water over the meat, let 
reach the boiling point, then cook slowly four hours, put 
the vegetables in, and simmer another hour. Any meat 
and bones may be used in making stock for aspic jelly, 
but unless there are bones and gristle enough to form 
gelatine for it, gelatine must be put into it, but the bones 
give a better flavor than added gelatine. 

Aspic jelly should be highly seasoned, be clear and 
sparkling, and of an amber color. It is used for garnish- 
ing fowl, game, etc. It is also used for molding boned 
birds and fowls, boned meats, etc. To mold meats in 
aspic jelly, wet the mold, pour in jelly half an inch deep, 
and let harden, then put the meat in place, and pour in 
the rest. If the bottom and sides are decorated with 
some design, put in a little jelly and let harden, so the 
article will not sink, but do not allow the jelly to become 
perfectly hard before more is carefully added. 

Aspic jelly may be cooled in a ring mold, and have 
chicken salad served in it. It is used at fine dinners and 
luncheons. 

Noodle Soup. 

If the broths on hand are from roast chicken and veal, 
thicken with butter and flour, using one tablespoonful of 
each to a pint of liquid (proceeding as directed for white 
sauce on page 53), let boil up well, and add any bits of 
cold macaroni cut in short pieces, or make noodles as on 
page 260. 

Vegetable Soups. 

When vegetables are used in soup, they should be first 
cooked in water, and care should be taken to put those 
vegetables requiring most cooking into the kettle first. 
Use as little water as practicable, and limit the simmering 



SOUPS AND SOUP MAKING. 269 

of each kind to the time actually necessary to cook it 
tender. 

String beans require from one to two hours. Carrots 
in large pieces require from one to two hours. Green 
peas three-fourths of an hour to one hour. Onions about 
one hour. The soup has a better flavor if the vegetables 
are browned in a little butter before adding to the soup. 
Use in the soup the water in which the vegetables are 
cooked. 

To each quart of soup use one-half cup of beans, one- 
half cup of carrots, one-half 'cup of peas, and one-fourth 
cup of onions, and the same of tomato may be used. May 
use a tablespoonful of white turnip, if liked. 

Mix together the bits of broth' of various kinds, cook 
the above vegetables in the same saucepan, adding the 
different vegetables according to the length of time re- 
quired for cooking them. When done, add them to the 
soup, season, and serve. If liked highly flavored, mix the 
broths, and steep a bouquet of herbs, cloves, and pepper- 
corns in it, using two cloves and four peppers to a quart. 
Cabbage may be used in vegetable soup, but it is so highly 
flavored that it asserts itself over the others too much for 
the best results. 

Okra Soup — For Home Work. 

One quart of chicken broth, one cup of okra canned or 
fresh (strained), one-fourth cup of lima beans, one-fourth 
cup of sweet corn, one-fourth cup of cooked and strained 
tomato. For thickening use two tablespoonfuls of flour 
and one of butter. Save out one cup of chicken broth, 
and use it in making the thickening as directed for thick- 
ening soups. 

Okra Soup — For Class Work. 

One cup of chicken broth, one-fourth cup of canned 
or fresh okra, one tablespoonful of lima beans, one table- 
spoonful of sweet corn, one tablespoonful of tomatoes. 



270 HOUSEHOLD SCIENCE. 

Thicken with one teaspoonful each of flour and butter. 
Season and serve. 

Save-all Soup. 

In a save-all soup, mix the different broths you have 
together. For each quart of broth fry in butter until 
brown one-half cup of onions and carrots mixed in equal 
parts, put these into the stock, and add one-half cup of 
celery, one-fourth cup each of turnip, parsnip and 
cabbage, cut fine. This will control the flavor of the 
soup, and you may now add bits of corn, string beans, 
hard-boiled eggs, etc. To finish the flavoring, add a cup 
of strained tomatoes, and two teaspoonfuls of chopped 
parsley. 

Mixed Tomato Soup. 

Use as much strained celery as tomato, otherwise make 
the same as puree of tomato, page 274. 

Mixed Broths with Tomato. 

If the bits of stock are the remains from roasts of turkey 
and beef, mix them and cook bones, gravy, and dressing 
together in cold water, strain, add a cup of strained toma- 
to to each three pints, season, and serve. Be careful to 
cook only a short time, as much cooking is apt to render 
the mixture strong. 

Mixed Soup — For Class Work.. 

One cup of mixed stock, one-fourth cup of beans rubbed 
through a puree sieve, one tablespoonful of strained to- 
mato, one-fourth tablespoonful of sugar caramel, one- 
fourth tablespoonful of meat caramel, one teaspoonful 
of butter, one tablespoonful of flour, — butter and flour 
browned together. Thicken with the same amount of 
plain flour. The browned butter and flour does not 
thicken much. 

Mixed Soup — For Home Work. 

One quart of mixed stock, colored by using cooked 
scraps of meat, one cup of baked beans rubbed through 



SOUPS AND SOUP MAKING. 271 

a puree sieve, one-fourth cup of strained tomato, four ta- 
blespoonfuls of sugar caramel, one tablespoonful of but- 
ter, one tablespoonful of flour. Brown flour and butter 
together and thicken as above. Mix all smoothly to- 
gether, season, and serve. 

Brown Soup — For Class Work. 

One-half tablespoonful of butter, one-half tablespoon- 
ful of flour. Cook together until brown. Add one cup 
of mixed stock, simmer five minutes, add one-half table- 
spoonful of butter and the same of flour rubbed together, 
and stir until smooth, and thickened a little. 

Brown Soup — For Home Work. 

Two tablespoonfuls of butter, two tablespoonfuls of 
flour. Cook together until brown. Add one quart of 
strong mixed stock, let boil up, add the same quantity of 
butter and flour as above, but do not brown them. Put 
the butter and flour for thickening into a saucepan, and 
when melted put into it a cup of cold water, stir until it 
thickens, then pour in a cup of hot soup stock, stir until 
smooth, and pour into the kettle. The browned flour 
colors, but does not thicken the liquid. 

Scotch Broth — For Home Work. 

To each quart of mixed stock add a scant one-half cup 
of cooked carrots, turnips, onions, and celery in equal 
parts. Add, also, one-fourth cup of cooked barley to each 
quart of soup, and one-half cup of strained tomato. Be- 
fore serving, add two tablespoonfuls of chopped parsley. 
Thicken with two tablespoonfuls of butter and the same 
of flour. 

Scotch Broth— For Class Work. 

One-half cup of broth, one-half tablespoonful of barley, 
two tablespoonfuls of tomato, one tablespoonful of carrot, 
turnip, and onion in equal parts, one-fourth teaspoonful 
of butter, one-fourth teaspoonful of flour, one-fourth tea- 
spoonful of parsley. Put together same as above. 



272 HOUSEHOLD SCIENCE. 

Mixed Vegetable Soup — Home Rule. 

One-fourth cup of cooked lima beans, one-half cup of 
cooked sweet corn, one-fourth cup of cooked tomatoes, 
three cups of cold water. Cook all together five minutes 
after it begins to boil, strain, season to taste with salt and 
pepper, and serve. 

Mixed Vegetable Soup — Class Rule. 

One tablespoonful of cooked lima beans, two table- 
spoonfuls of cooked sweet corn, one tablespoonful of 
cooked tomatoes, three-fourths of a cup of cold water. 
Put together as above. 

Odds and Ends Soup — Home Rule. 

Two cups of stock (meat), one-half cup of corn (cook- 
ed), one-fourth cup of beans (cooked), one-fourth cup of 
tomatoes (cooked), one tablespoonful of sugar, one-half 
of a hard-boiled egg, chopped. Heat all together, season 
with salt and pepper, and serve. 

Odds and Ends Soup — Class Rule. 

One-half cup of stock, two tablespoonfuls of corn, one 
tablespoonful of beans, one tablespoonful of tomatoes, one 
teaspoonful of sugar, one-half teaspoonful of egg. 

PUREES AND CREAM SOUPS. 

The class of soups with which we have been dealing 
contains those which are composed of meat broth flavor- 
ed with vegetables. When the vegetables appeared at all, 
they were in distinct pieces floating about in the liquid. 
In the class with which we are now to deal, the vegetables 
play a very important part. The cooked and strained 
vegetable has liquid enough added to it to make it of the 
right consistency for soup. The mixture is thickened a 
little with flour, arrowroot, or cornstarch. Arrowroot 
thickens without having any perceptible effect in other 
ways. Flour thickens, but clouds some, and gives a 
pleasant flavor. Cornstarch gives a decided flavor to 
whatever is thickened with it. The liquid used in these 



SOUPS AND SOUP MAKING. 273 

soups may be water, meat stock, or milk. When water 
is used, they are sometimes called "summer soups," to 
distinguish them from the ones with broth, which are 
known as "winter soups." For the sake of distinction, 
we will call those made with water or stock "purees," and 
those with milk or cream, "cream soups." 

Puree of Baked Beans. 

Pour one cup of boiling water over a pint of cold baked 
beans, stir until hot, and then strain through a puree 
sieve. Add three cups of soup stock or water, thicken as 
directed in remarks on soup, and serve. Use two table- 
spoonfuls of flour and one of butter to each quart of 
soup. 

The object of thickening purees is that the ingredients 
may be better blended and mixed. 

Puree of Black Beans. 

One pint of beans, two tablespoonfuls of flour, one 
of butter. Look the beans over, and put to soak over 
night, drain the water off, and put the beans to cook. 
For one pint of beans add three pints of boiling water, 
and salt a little. They should cook slowly eight or ten 
hours to have the best flavor, and it is easier to cook 
them in a bean pot or in a stone jar, with a stone cover, 
in the oven. Put in boiling water as it evaporates, to 
keep the amount about the same. When done rub 
through a sieve, and add one pint of soup stock or 
water. This makes a quart in all, thicken with the but- 
ter and flour and season to taste. Slice into it one- 
half a lemon, cut very fine, and put in one hard-boiled 
tgg, chopped, and serve. Tomatoes and either baked 
beans or black beans may be used together as directed 
in mixed soups, or water instead of soup stock may be 
used. 

Both the baked beans and the black beans may be used 
with milk instead of water, thus making a cream soup, 



274 HOUSEHOLD SCIENCE. 

but it is better to use them either in mixed soups, or with 
water or soup stock in purees, because the color does 
not harmonize so well with milk. Serve with croutons or 
toasted crackers. 

Puree of Tomatoes. 

One quart of cooked strained tomatoes (cooked in 
their own juices), two cups of hot water, one table- 
spoonful of sugar. If onion is liked, put in one teaspoon- 
ful, grated. Thicken with two level tablespoonfuls of 
flour and the same of butter. Cook slowly half an hour. 
Season to taste with salt and pepper. 

Puree of Split Peas. 

One cup of meat stock, one cup of dried split peas, one 
tablespoonful of flour, one-half tablespoonful of sugar 
and one-half level tablespoonful of butter. 

Look the peas over, wash, and put to soak in three 
pints of cold water. Soak over night, or for several 
hours. Heat to boiling point in water in which they 
were soaked and put into a stone jar with a cover, or in 
a bean pot. Set in an oven, and let cook eight or ten 
hours. Fill up with hot water if they dry out too much 
as they cook. When taken from the oven, mash through 
a puree sieve, thicken the broth with the flour and but- 
ter, season to taste with salt, pepper, and butter, bring 
to the boiling point, and serve. They may be seasoned 
with salt pork added when put to cook, same as baked 
beans. To thicken the puree, melt the butter and flour 
together in a saucepan, and then add the stock cold and 
let boil a few minutes. 

Puree of Lentils. 

Prepare the lentils, and cook same as split peas, and 
make soup by same rule. 

Cream of Split Peas. 

Proceed as for puree of split peas, except use milk 
instead of meat stock. 



SOUPS AND SOUP MAKING. 275 

Puree of Green Peas— Tor Home Work. 

One cup of strained green peas, one tablespoonful of 
butter, two tablespoonfuls of flour, one quart of veal, 
chicken or lamb broth. Thicken the broth with flour and 
butter as in making drawn butter sauce (page 200) mix 
with the peas, let boil up, season, and serve. 

Puree of Green Peas— For Class Work. 

One-fourth cup of strained peas, one-half teaspoonful 
of butter, one teaspoonful of flour, one cup of veal or 
chicken broth. 

Cream of Peas. 

One teaspoonful of butter, one and one-half teaspoon- 
fuls of flour and one-half cup of strained peas, one-half 
cup of veal or chicken broth, one-half cup of whole milk. 
Put together the same as puree of green peas. 

Cream of Potatoes. 

Wash, pare, and cut into dice six good-sized potatoes. 
Add one tablespoonful of minced onion, and one tea- 
spoonful of salt. Put to cook in as little boiling water 
as is practicable, and when the potatoes are done mash 
fine and add one quart of hot milk, and stir constantly, or 
set off the hottest part of the stove while you mix together 
two tablespoonfuls of butter and two of flour. Put the 
mixture on the end of a wooden spoon, and stir into the 
liquid until the flour and butter are incorporated and the 
soup slightly thickened. Add salt and pepper to taste. 

Puree of Potatoes For Class Work. 

Butter, one teaspoonful, flour, one teaspoonful, whole 
milk, one cup, potato (before cooking cut in cubes), one- 
half cup, onion, one-half tablespoonful. Cook potato and 
onion together, and mash through a sieve. Cook butter, 
flour and milk into a sauce, (page 261), and when sea- 
soned pour over the prepared onion and potato, and 
serve. 



276 HOUSEHOLD SCIENCE. 

Puree of Potatoes— For Home Work. 

Butter one and one-half tablespoonfuls, flour one and 
one-half tablespoonfuls, whole milk one and one-half 
pints, potato, before cooking, one cup, onion two and one- 
fourth tablespoonfuls. Put together as above. Cold 
mashed potatoes may be used in the soup instead of fresh 
ones. 

Cream of Salsify. 

One cup of strained salsify, one-half cup of strained 
corn, one pint chicken or veal broth, one pint of whole 
milk, one tablespoonful of flour, one tablespoonful of 
butter. Wash the roots well. Scrape off the outside, cut 
in pieces, and drop into cold water slightly acidulated 
with vinegar to prevent discoloring. Put to cook in 
water which is hot and slightly salted. Use just water 
enough to prevent burning. When tender, mash 
through a puree sieve, and add the pulp to the boiling 
chicken or veal broth. Thicken with the butter and 
flour rubbed together, let cook until smooth, stirring all 
the time, then add the milk, let boil up, season and serve. 

Cream of Corn. 

One pint of corn prepared as for stewing, water to 
cover. Cook until soft, and mash through a puree sieve. 
Add water to make a pint. Put into a saucepan one- 
half tablespoonful of butter and the same of flour, let 
melt, and stir together. Pour in one pint of cold milk, 
let boil, stirring all the time, then add the corn pulp, let 
boil up, season, add one-half a tablespoonful of sugar, 
and serve. 

Cream of Corn— Class Rule. 

One-fourth cup of corn after straining (either stewed 
or canned corn), one-fourth cup of sweet milk, one tea- 
spoonful of flour, one teaspoonful of butter; thicken the 
milk with butter and flour, add the corn, mix well and 
bring to the boiling point, season with salt and pepper, 
and serve. 



SOUPS AND SOUP MAKING. 277 

Cream of Lima Beans. 

Lima beans are better in a cream than in a puree. To 
each pint of cooked lima beans add a cup of hot water, 
and when hot, rub through the sieve. Now add one 
pint of milk, season to taste, and thicken with one table- 
spoonful of flour and the same of butter, add a little 
cream if milk is used. 

Corbena Soup. 

Make same as the above, using one-third as much 
corn as beans, and as much rice as corn. 

Cream of Corn and Beans. 

To each cup and a half of cooked corn use one-half 
cup of baked beans. Add one cup of hot water, and rub 
through a sieve. Then add one pint of milk, put over 
the fire, bring to the. boiling point and stir into it one 
tablespoonful of flour, one tablespoonful of butter (rub- 
bed 'to a paste), cook four or five minutes, season with 
a level teaspoonful of salt, a little pepper, and serve. 

Cream of Celery. 

Wash clean and cut into inch lengths celery enough to 
fill a pint measure. Keep covered with water and boil 
until soft. Mash through a puree sieve, and finish as 
cream of corn. Use only the coarser parts and roots of 
celery. 

Cream of Mixed Vegetables. 

Mix cooked peas, lima beans, sweet corn, tomatoes, and 
celery in equal parts, mash through the sieve. To this 
pulp add chicken or veal broth one-half as much as is 
needed to render it of the proper consistency, and the 
other half cream or whole milk, and thicken as any cream 
soup. 

Puree of Mixed Vegetables No- 1. 

Mix half a cup each of carrots, turnips, and celery, 
and mash through the sieve, also one-fourth cup of onions 



278 HOUSEHOLD SCIENCE. 

and a cup of tomatoes. Into the mixed pulp pour one 
quart of meat broth, thicken with two tablespoonfuls of 
flour and one of butter, season, and serve. 

Puree of Mixed Vegetables No. 2. 

Make the puree of mixed vegetables the same as mixed 
vegetable soup (page 272), except rub the pulp of the 
vegetables through a sieve into the stock, and thicken it 
a little, using one tablespoonful of flour and one table- 
spoonful of butter to one cup of the stock. 

Bread-Crumb Soup. 

Two cups of broth, two tablespoonfuls of bread 
crumbs, one tablespoonful of flour, two tablespoonfuls of 
butter. Heat the broth and cook the thickening in it 
until the flour is cooked, stir in the bread crumbs, sea- 
son with one-half teaspoonful of salt and a dash of 
pepper. 

Bread-Crumb Soup — Class Rule. 

One-half cup of broth, two teaspoonfuls of bread 
crumbs, one teaspoonful of flour, two teaspoonfuls of 
butter. 

Fish Chowder. 

Plain crackers (six), fish picked up (one quart), sliced 
raw potatoes (one quart), salt pork, cut fine (one cup), 
onions, cut fine (one-half cup), cream or milk (one 
quart). Season the milk highly, and have ready to pour 
over the other ingredients. Saute the pork, then cook 
the onions in pork fat, being careful not to burn them. 
Now put in the potato and fish in alternate layers, and cov- 
er scantily with boilng water. Cook until the potatoes are 
nearly done, then add the cream and cracker crumbs. As 
soon as it boils, serve. To fish chowder, corn and toma- 
toes are often added. 

Oyster Soup. 

One cup of whole milk, or skimmed milk, if desired, 
two teaspoonfuls of butter, two teaspoonfuls of flour. 



SALADS AND GARNISHES. 279 

Put butter and flour in the saucepan and let melt and 
stir together, then pour in the cold milk, and cook the 
flour until it does not taste raw. Free the oysters from 
bits of shell, and put in just long enough to become plump 
and have the edges curl. Season to taste with salt and 
pepper. 

Oyster Stew. 

Use milk or water with the liquid in the oysters. Heat 
the liquid, cook the oysters in it until they look plump 
and the edges curl, then season and serve. 

Lobster Bisque, or Cream of Lobster — For Home Work. 

One cup lobster, one tablespoonful of butter, one table- 
spoonful of flour, one-half level teaspoonful of salt (in 
canned lobster, salt to taste). One-half teaspoonful is 
generally enough. Pepper to taste. One pint of milk 
and lobster broth mixed. Make a sauce with half the 
liquid and the butter and flour, as directed on page 261 ; 
when it boils, put in the chopped lobster, let boil again, 
add the rest of the liquid, season, and serve. The bisque 
should have some lobster coral to give it color. May 
buy dried coral, or add a little tomato, to color. To the 
above quantity add one-fourth of a cup of tomato, if to- 
mato is used. 

Lobster Bisque or Cream of Lobster — For Class Work. 

One-half level teaspoonful of butter, one-half level tea- 
spoonful of flour, one saltspoonful of salt, one-half salt- 
spoonful of pepper, four tablespoon fuls of lobster, one- 
half cup of milk. Put together same as above. 

Puree of Salmon or any Fish. 

One level tablespoonful of flour, one level tablespoon- 
ful of butter, one cup of sweet milk, one cup of minced 
salmon, one-half cup of strained tomato, a little soda in 
the tomatoes. Make a white sauce with the butter, flour, 
and milk, season to taste, put the salmon in, and let boil, 
then stir the tomatoes into it. 



280 HOUSEHOLD SCIENCE. 

Cream of Chicken No. 1. 

One quart of chicken broth, freed from fat, one cup 
of sweet cream or whole milk. Put two tablespoonfuls 
of flour and one of butter in a saucepan. When this is 
melted, and the two blended, pour in one pint of cold 
chicken broth, stir until it boils, add the rest of the broth, 
and let boil a few minutes, pour in the cream or milk, and 
when hot, season and serve. 

Cream of Chicken No. 2. 

Make same as above, and add a little chopped parsley- 
just before serving. 

Cream of Chicken No. 3. 

Make in the same manner, but use one pint of celery 
stock and one of chicken instead of all chicken broth. 

Cream of Chicken No. 4. 

Make just the same as No. i, and add a few drops 
of onion juice. 

Cream of Tomatoes. 

Two cups of strained tomatoes, two cups of milk, two 
tablespoonfuls of flour and two tablespoonfuls of butter; 
thicken the milk with the flour and butter, heat the toma- 
toes, remove from the stove and pour the thickened milk 
into the tomatoes, season with salt and pepper, and serve. 
If the tomatoes are very acid one-eighth of a teaspoonful 
of soda added to them aids in preventing the soup curd- 
ling. 

Cream of Tomatoes— Class Work. 

One-half cup of milk, one-half cup of tomatoes, two 
teaspoonfuls of flour and two teaspoonfuls of butter. 

References: Parloa's Kitchen Companion, pp. 105-116; Art 
of Cookery — Ewing — pp. 100-108; U. S. Dept. Agr., Farmers' 
Bulletin No. 34, pp. 19, 20; U. S. Dept. Agr., Office Exp. 
Stations, Bulletin No. 21, pp. 96, 97; Elements of Cookery — 
Williams & Fisher — pp. 155-161; Boston Cook Book — Lincoln — 
pp. 119-130. 



CHAPTER XXII. 



SALADS, SALAD DRESSINGS AND GARNISHES. 

Salad dressings may be divided into four general 
classes,— cream dressings, cooked egg dressings, mayon- 
naise (oil dressing), and French dressing. The dress- 
ing must be chosen to suit the ingredients of the salad, 




Utensils and Materials for Making Salad. 



as its mission is to soften and mollify too decided flavors, 
or make more decided a flavor not sufficiently pronounced. 
The seasoning must be put into the dressing, and the 
salad materials and dressing so combined as to enhance 
rather than mar the beauty of the dish. Generally speak- 
ing, French dressing is best suited to such vegetables as 
lettuce, watercress, cucumbers and onions. Cream dress- 
ing suits best those things which harmonize with milk 
flavor, as cabbage, apples, beets, etc. Cooked dressing 
is palatable with most vegetables used for salads, but there 



282 HOUSEHOLD SCIENCE. 

are a few which are better with oil or mayonnaise dress- 
ing. Celery and tomatoes are notable examples of this 
class. All meat salads are more palatable when dressed 
with a mayonnaise than with a cooked dressing. 

Salads, especially when made of green vegetables, are 
very beneficial to the health, both on account of vegetable 
salts and acids which they furnish the system, and because 
they are crisp and cool, and furnish bulk in an agreeable 
form. In raw vegetables, the nourishment is all used. 
None is lost, as is often the case when vegetables are 
cooked. For e very-day use, the simpler the dressing the 
better, much of the time. Frequently, salt, pepper, and 
vinegar are all that is needed. "Variety is the spice of 
life" applies to salads as well as to other things, and it is 
consequently better to use few materials at a time, even 
when making mixed salads, in order to have a greater 
variety. 

A fish salad should always have a little lettuce or water- 
cress cut into bits and mixed with the fish, and is often 
improved by the addition of boiled eggs chopped. 

Mushrooms, both raw and cooked, are used as salads, 
though they are less desirable than many other vegetables. 

A variety of flavors may be had by using tarragon 
vinegar, chervil, garlic, etc., when desired, in making salad 
dressings. 

G-ENERAL RULES FOR SALADS. 

The meats generally used for salads are chicken, beef, 
fish, tongue (pickled or fresh), sweetbreads, and shad- 
roe. Meats for salad should be fine flavored, boiled, and 
cooled in the water in which cooked, to render juicy as 
possible, but removed before the liquid gelatinizes. The 
meat should be freed from all fat, gristle, and undesir- 
able parts, and cut into small dice, in order that it may 
the more readily be penetrated by the dressing. It may 
be marinated, as on page 285, or not, as desired. 



SALADS AND GARNISHES. 283 

In preparing green vegetables for salads, see that the 
vegetables are fresh, crisp, cold, clean, and the surplus 
moisture removed by a cloth which absorbs it without 
bruising the delicate materials. When selecting green 
and tender salad plants, as lettuce, watercress, etc., see 
that they are the best of their kind, and avoid bruising 
and breaking them. Dry them when washed, and put 
into a cool place with the dishes in which they are to be 
mixed and served. In mixing a salad in which the vege- 
tables are cooked, avoid breaking and mushing them in 
putting the materials together. 

In making fruit salads, avoid having them too thick. 
Use as little gelatine as will keep the mixture in shape 
when served. An orange cup is a pretty receptacle for a 
fruit salad. Fruit salads are sometimes dressed with oil, 
but this should be avoided, for the fruit flavor is not thus 
improved, and there are meats and vegetables which, 
when made into salads, are improved by the addition of a 
little oil. A delicate flavor of onion or garlic may be im- 
parted to a salad by simply rubbing the dish in which 
it is to be served with onion or garlic. 

SALAD MAKING. 

Salad making is a very important branch in the prep- 
aration of food, since the salad materials require careful 
handling to insure success. Very pleasing and hygienic 
dishes may be prepared from uncooked fruits and vege- 
tables, thus giving the system the benefit of the fruit and 
vegetable acids, as well as furnishing a pleasing va- 
riety. 

Salads have their place in using up left overs, as some 
of the most delicious dishes are the result of a wise 
mingling of various edibles in salads. In order to be- 
come proficient in salad making, one must make a careful 
study of relative flavors, and the manner of handling 
salad materials, that their natural flavors may be re- 
tained and the mass preserve an attractive appearance. 



284 HOUSEHOLD SCIENCE. 

Bits of cold fish may be combined properly with hard- 
boiled eggs, lettuce, cucumbers, tomatoes, or cress. Any 
of these are admirably adapted to the purpose. Celery 
and fish are inharmonious in flavor and should not be 
used together. A suitable garnish adds much to the at- 
tractiveness of a salad, but nothing should be used for 
the purpose which cannot be eaten with the salad without 
disguising the delicacy of the flavor, or detracting from 
it. A salad should always be appetizing, refreshing, and 
attractive. 

In the preparation of salads, care should be taken to 
preserve the natural flavor of the edibles mingled to- 
gether in the salad, and they should be selected with 
special reference, to the effect each will have upon the 
other. Care should be exercised also to have the dress- 
ing such as is best suited to the peculiar flavor and con- 
dition of that salad. For example, cabbage belongs to 
the mustard family, hence a dressing for cabbage salad 
requires no mustard. A very little onion used in the 
dressing for tomato salad will give a pleasing result. Let- 
tuce, being very delicate in flavor, requires no other addi- 
tion to the dressing prepared for it than salt and pepper. 

Salads may be appropriately divided into three classes. 
Let us first examine fruit salads. Many fruits are fre- 
quently served at dinners as salads. Those most com- 
monly so used, perhaps, being strawberries, currants and 
oranges. A great variety of salads may be prepared by 
mixing the different fruits, but when this is done, one 
fruit should be chosen with special reference to giving 
flavor, and the rest mainly for bulk. Pineapple, Malaga 
grapes, and oranges make a pleasant combination. The 
strawberry seems sufficient within itself, and will form a 
salad which will tickle the palate and make the mouth 
water, with no other dressing save a little powdered 
sugar into which it is dipped just previous to being eaten. 

As a second class, we have vegetable salads. 



SALADS AND GARNISHES. 285 

In a third class may be placed mixed salads. Chicken 
salad is a good example of this variety of salad. 

To Marinate Meats for Salads. 

Use just enough of the following mixture to moisten, 
or moisten with salad dressing, season in the same way, 
.and let stand one hour. To make the marinating liquid, 
mix in the proportion of three tablespoonfuls of vine- 
gar and one of olive oil. Season with salt until the 
salt is barely perceptible, then put in a little pepper. 
Stir up well, and pour over the diced meat or chicken. 
Let stand in the refrigerator one hour or more, then 
drain. The object is to flavor the jneat a little, that the 
inside may not escape flavor after the salad is mixed. 
When a salad dressing is used instead of the marinating 
liquid, it must be thinned with vinegar — at least one- 
fourth — and a little oil added, and the mixture seasoned 
nicely. 
Cooked Salad Dressing. 

Measure four tablespoonfuls of vinegar, and let boil, 
then pour over two whole eggs, or four yolks beaten until 
thick and lemon colored. Stir while adding the vinegar. 
Put in a saucepan over the fire, and cook until creamy, 
stirring all the time. Remove from the fire and add one 
tablespoonful of butter for each egg: beat well, and set 
away until needed. To each cup of dressing add two 
teaspoonfuls of mixed seasoning when you are ready 
to use it. 

The easiest way for an amateur to insure this dressing 
being perfectly smooth is to cook in a double boiler, or in 
a bowl set in hot water, or set the bowl over the tea- 
kettle. If it does lump, use a dover beater, and beat vigor- 
ously until all lumps disappear. 

Mayonnaise or Oil Dressing. 

Select a large coffee cup, and see that the dover egg 
beater will turn in it. Then put a bottle of good olive 
-oil, a fresh lemon, and the dover beater in a pan of ice 



286 HOUSEHOLD SCIENCE. 

water, and let stand one hour. Wipe the cup and beater 
perfectly dry. Put the egg yolk in the bowl, and beat a 
few turns, then put in a few drops of oil and beat again, 
and so continue until the mixture becomes very thick. 
Then wipe the lemon, squeeze the juice out, put a tea- 
spoonful into the mixture, and beat. This will thin the 
dressing. Now add oil, and beat until it thickens again, 
and add lemon juice, and so continue until you have the 
desired quantity of dressing. 

French Dressing. 

Olive oil, three measures ; vinegar, one measure. Use 
salt until the salt is almost as strong as the vinegar. Pep- 
per to taste a little. Have both oil and vinegar very cold, 
and put the oil in a drop at a time, beating constantly un- 
til it is in. If you prefer less oil, use three parts vinegar 
to one part oil, stir together, and season as before. Serve 
this dressing on watercress, lettuce, or endive when 
dressed for salads. 

Cream Dressing No. 1. 

Mash yolks of three hard-boiled eggs fine, add two 
level teaspoonfuls of sugar, one level teaspoonful of salt, 
one level teaspoonful of mustard, one-half level teaspoon- 
ful of pepper, and stir well. Add two tablespoonfuls of 
vinegar a little at a time, and stir until well mixed. Add 
to this one pint of whipped cream, and use for dressing 
vegetable salads. 

Cream Dressing No. 2. 

One tablespoonful flour, one tablespoonful butter, one- 
half cup of cream, two tablespoonfuls of vinegar. Meas- 
ure flour and butter, and melt together. Then pour in the 
cream and cook until quite thick. When done, add grad- 
ually the vinegar. When cool, add one-fourth cup of 
thin cream, or one-half cup of whipped cream. 

Use these cream dressings in making apple and cabbage 
salads especially. 



SALADS AND GARNISHES. 287 

Cream Dressing No. 3, 

One hard-boiled egg yolk, two-thirds of a teaspoonful 
of sugar, one-third of a teaspoonful of salt, one-third of 
a teaspoonful of mustard, one-sixth of a teaspoonful of 
pepper, rub with the yolk, add two teaspoonfuls of vine- 
gar and one-fourth of a cup of white sauce, or two-thirds 
of a cup of whipped cream. The egg whites may be cut 
into cubes and dressed with this dressing. This makes a 
very palatable salad. To make the white sauce, use one- 
fourth of a cup of milk, two teaspoonfuls of flour and two 
teaspoonfuls of butter. 

Tomato Dressing. 

One egg, beaten very light. Pour over it boiling hot 
one tablespoonful of strained tomato and one tablespoon- 
ful of vinegar, stirring while pouring. Place over the 
fire and cook until it thickens, then remove from the fire 
and stir in one tablespoonful of butter. Season with 
mixed seasoning No. 3, using one level teaspoonful of 
the seasoning and one cup of the dressing. Use on a 
salad made of salmon and diced tomato in equal parts. 

Mixed Seasoning No. 1. 

One teaspoonful of mustard, one-half teaspoonful of 
pepper, three teaspoonfuls of salt, one teaspoonful of 
sugar. Use in dressing tomato salad. 

Mixed Seasoning No. 2. 

Three teaspoonfuls of salt, one-half teaspoonful of pep- 
per, two teaspoonfuls of sugar. Use this seasoning with 
cabbage salad or cold slaw. 

Mixed Salad Seasoning No. 3. 

One teaspoonful of mustard, one-half teaspoonful of 
pepper, three teaspoonfuls of salt. Mix well, and use 
what you need. Used in most meat and vegetable salads. 

Tomato Salad. 

Scald and cool the tomatoes as directed on page 
55. Season to taste, with mixed seasoning, one cup of 



288 HOUSEHOLD SCIENCE. 

cooked salad dressing (page 285). A cup of dressing 
will need a generous teaspoonful of mixed seasoning and 
one-half a teaspoonful of grated onion if made with good 
vinegar. Peel and cut each tomato in two parts, and put 
the dressing on top. Garnish with nasturtium or lettuce 
leaf or watercress, under the tomato. 

Winter Tomato Salad. 

One-fourth cup of tomato strained, one level teaspoon- 
ful of gelatine, one tablespoonful of water. Season with 
salt and pepper. Put the water on the gelatine, let soak 
until dissolved, then add the tomato, which has been 
heated, pour into cups, cool, and serve on a lettuce leaf 
with a tablespoonful of salad dressing. The tomato and 
gelatine mixture should be about one-half an inch thick 
in the glass when put to cool. This is inferior to fresh 
tomato, but can be used when they are not to be had. 

Tomato Salad in Tomato Cups. 

Select medium-sized, firm tomatoes, of good color, cut 
off the blossom end about one-third of the way down, 
scoop out the inside, and discard all inedible parts. Cut 
the core and the one-third which was cut off into small 
pieces, add to the pulp, and put to dram in a colander. 
Put the tomato cups where they will be very cold. Take 
one-half cup of mayonnaise and one-half cup of cooked 
dressing. Mix thoroughly with it one teaspoonful of 
grated onion, the same of chopped parsley and season with 
one level teaspoonful of mixed seasoning No. 3. Just be- 
fore serving add to the drained pulp enough of this 
dressing to moisten well, put into the chilled tomato 
cups, and serve on cold plates. Garnish with nasturtium 
leaves, lettuce or watercress. 

Frozen Tomato Salad. 

Strain canned tomatoes, and season with salt and pep- 
per. Freeze same as ice cream. Cut into egg-shaped 
pieces with a silver tablespoon, and serve on a lettuce 
leaf. Dress with mayonnaise (oil dressing), or with 



SALADS AND GARNISHES. 289 

cooked dressing; oil dressing is best. Put a spoonful of 
the dressing, seasoned as for tomato salad in cups (page 
288), on the lettuce leaf beside the salad. This is inferior 
to fresh tomato, but may be used when tomatoes are not 
in season. 

Tomato, Celery, and Nut Salad. 

Prepare the tomatoes and dressing as for tomato 
salad in cups (page 288), except leave out the onion. 
When ready to put together (just before serving), meas- 
ure the tomato, and add half the bulk of celery and nuts 
in equal amounts, and mix well with the tomato before 
adding the dressing. If oil dressing is distasteful, use 
the cooked dressing on page 285, and proceed in the same 
way. The above violates the law of harmony, because the 
tomatoes are soft and velvety, and the other ingredients 
hard and nutty, but the flavors combine well. 

Onion Salad. 

Put onions in a cool place or in cold water until 
thoroughly chilled, then cut in very thin slices (under 
water, or in a draught of air). To a cup of mildly acid 
vinegar add one teaspoonful of salt and one-half tea- 
spoonful of sugar. Add pepper to taste, and pour over 
the sliced onions just before using, or use a French dress- 
ing, as given on page 286. 

Carrot Salad. 

Scrape small carrots, and cook whole. When done, re- 
move from the water and cut into small dice. For each 
cup of water in which the carrots were cooked use one 
tablespoonful of butter and one of flour, and make a sauce 
in same manner as described on page 50. When the sauce 
is made, add one tablespoonful of very acid vinegar, or 
two of medium acid. Season to taste with salt and pep- 
per and serve either hot or cold. 
10 



290 HOUSEHOLD SCIENCE. 

String Bean Salad — Cooked Dressing. 

Select young, tender beans of some string-less variety, — 
wax beans are nice. Break off a little portion from each 
end and divide each bean pod in the center. Cook three 
hours slowly, but do not make broken and unsightly. 
Have the beans very cold. Put one cup of cooked salad 
dressing (page 285) in a bowl, and add to it one generous 
teaspoonful of mixed seasonings, and one-half a teaspoon- 
ful of grated onion, or of onion juice, extracted as directed 
on page 478. Mix these thoroughly with the dressing. 
Put the beans, a few at a time, in the bowl, and with two 
silver forks mix with the seasoning so that the beans may 
not become mushy. Serve on a lettuce leaf. 

Asparagus Salad. 

Make a cooked salad dressing as on page 285. Have 
the dressing very cold, and mix with it one-third as 
much whipped cream as there is dressing. Mix salt and 
pepper in a cup, using three teaspoonfuls of salt to 
one-half a teaspoonful of pepper. Mix one and one- 
fourth teaspoonfuls of this with a generous cup of the 
dressing, or enough to season it quite highly. Tie tender 
asparagus in bunches, and cook until clone in as little boil- 
ing water as is practicable. When cold, remove the 
strings, lay the asparagus in the salad dish a few pieces 
at a time, and pour on some dressing, then add more aspar- 
agus, and so on, to avoid making a mushy, unsightly mass. 

Cabbage Salad — Cooked Dressing. 

One measure of cabbage, shaved fine, one-half a meas- 
ure of cooked mayonnaise dressing, one-fourth measure of 
whipped cream. Mix salt and pepper in same propor- 
tion as usual for salads, but leave out the mustard, be- 
cause cabbage has enough of this flavor already. Season 
to taste with the mixed salt and pepper, and put in half 
as much sugar as you have used of the mixed seasoning. 
In other words, mix one teaspoonful of salt, two of sugar 
and one-half of pepper, and use what you need of it. 



SALADS AND GARNISHES. 291 



Cold Slaw. 



To each cup of vinegar of medium strength add one 
teaspoonful of the following mixture : Three teaspoon- 
fuls of salt, one-half teaspoonful of pepper, two teaspoon- 
fuls of sugar. Have the cabbage fresh and shredded 
very fine. Have the vinegar cold. 

Cabbage Salad— Cream Dressing No. 2 (page 286)- 

Prepare the cabbage the same as for cold slaw, and 
keep out some of the finest and longest pieces for gar- 
nish. Have the cream dressing very cold, and season to 
taste with the mixed seasoning given for cold slaw. 

Potato Salad — Home Work. 

Slice plain boiled potatoes very thin. For each cup of 
potato used, mince one tablespoon ful of onion (very fine) 
or grate it ; use also one tablespoonful of capers, or pick- 
les, and one-half tablespoonful of parsley, each minced 
very fine. To each cup of dressing used, add one table- 
spoonful of vinegar and one-half cup of thin cream. Mix 
with the dressing one and one-fourth level teaspoonfuls of 
mixed seasoning and the chopped materials before men- 
tioned. Put a few of the sliced potatoes in a bowl, add 
some dressing, and mix carefully by lifting with two sil- 
ver forks to prevent mushing the potatoes. Continue in 
the same way until all are in. Garnish potato salad with 
parsley. 

Potato Salad— Class Work. 

Two tablespoonfuls of dressing, two tablespoonfuls of 
cream, one-half teaspoonful of chopped parsley, one drop 
of onion juice, six capers, one teaspoonful of mixed sea- 
soning. The above is practically one-fourth of a cup. 

Hot Potato Salad. 

Some prefer to mix the salad while the potatoes are 
hot. The flavor is somewhat different when thus made, 
and the salad may be served cold or hot. 



292 HOUSEHOLD SCIENCE. 

Beet Salad. 

Prepare the dressing as for potato salad, except leave 
out the onion juice and capers. Cut cold boiled beets 
into small cubes (one-fourth of an inch) and mix with 
the dressing. 

Potato and Beet Salad. 

Prepare the beets and dress as for plain salad. Cut cold 
boiled potatoes in dice same as beets, dress with salad 
dressing. Serve on the salad plates, first some of the po- 
tato salad, then some of the beet salad on the potato 
salad, using about one-half as much beet as potato. Gar- 
nish with watercress. 

Cucumber Salad. 

Cucumbers should always be very cold and crisp when 
eaten, and may be dressed simply with salt and pepper 
and vinegar, or with a French dressing, or with a sour 
cream dressing, made in the following manner : Make a 
white sauce as for plain cream dressing, and add to it 
an equal portion of sour cream. To each three-fourths of 
a cup of the mixture, add one level teaspoonful of the 
mixed seasoning and one teaspoonful of sugar, or put in 
salt until you can taste it a little in the vinegar, then add 
pepper to taste. 

Lettuce Salad — Tarragon Dressing. 

Make a French dressing (page 286), using tarragon 
vinegar instead of plain vinegar. 

Lettuce Salad — Chervil Dressing. 

Simply make a French dressing, using chervil vinegar. 
Chervil vinegar and tarragon vinegar are made by soak- 
ing chervil or tarragon in common vinegar in a closed 
vessel for a few days. 

Lettuce Salad — French Dressing. 

Lettuce should be gathered fresh just before using, 
carefully washed to prevent breaking the leaves, and the 



SALADS AND GARNISHES. 293 

water shaken off before setting away for the short time 
before serving. It may be dressed with a French dress- 
ing prepared as on page 286. In this case, prepare the 
dressing, and dress the lettuce at the table. 

Lettuce Salad. 

Make a cooked salad dressing as on page 285. Use 
equal parts of the cold dressing and whipped cream. 
Mix them well, and season with the mixed seasoning, 
page 287. Use one level teaspoonful to three-fourths of 
a cup. 

Watercress Salad. 

Prepare and dress same as lettuce. 
Endive Salad. 

Prepare and dress same as lettuce. 
Celery Salad. 

Use perfectly white and tender celery, and wash the 
stalks very clean. Cut in one-fourth inch lengths, and if 
large, cut across. Use the regular mayonnaise dressing 
(page 285), and to each one-fourth of a cup add one 
level teaspoonful of mixed seasoning (page 287). Put 
the dressing on the last minute possible, because the 
dressing draws the juice from the celery, and becomes 
watery. 

Celery and Nut Salad. 

Make same as above, except use one-third as much 
English walnuts, cut fine and mixed with the dressing, as 
you have of the celery. 

Egg Salad. 

Cut the whites of hard-boiled eggs in dice, and care- 
fuly break up the yolks. Make a cooked dressing, using 
tarragon vinegar (page 285). Season the dressing with 
the mixed seasoning No. 1 (page 287), and to each cup 
of dressing used add one tablespoonful of chopped capers, 
one of chopped pickles, and one of finely-minced parsley. 



294 HOUSEHOLD SCIENCE. 

Mix the whites and the yolks gently, then put a layer of 
the eggs in a bowl, put on some dressing, and mix 
carefully, put on another in the same way, and so con- 
tinue until all is used. Serve on a lettuce leaf. 

Salmon and Celery Salad — Class Rule. 

One tablespoonful of salmon and one tablespoonful of 
celery cut into small dice. Dress with two tablespoonfuls 
of the tomato dressing, page 287. 

Salmon and Celery Salad — Home Rule. 

Prepare the salmon as for salmon and tomato salad. 
Select fresh crisp celery, and cut in dice about the same 
size of the salmon. Use an equal amount of salmon and 
celery. Mix with cooked tomato dressing. To one pint 
can of salmon and the same amount of celery use two 
cups of the tomato dressing, seasoned with two teaspoon- 
fuls of mixed seasoning No. 3. Serve cold on a lettuce 
leaf on a cold plate. 

Salmon Salad, Garnished with Hard-Boiled Eggs- 
Prepare a pint can of salmon as for salmon and celery 
salad, and mix with one cup of tomato dressing, seasoned 
with one teaspoonful of mixed seasoning No. 1. Mix 
the salmon and dressing lightly, not to mush the fish, put 
on a platter, and garnish with thin slices of hard-boiled 
eggs. 

Salmon and Tomato Salad — Class Rule. 

Use two tablespoonfuls of diced salmon, dress with 
plain cooked dressing, season with mixed seasoning No. 
3. Put the diced salmon on a lettuce leaf on a cold plate. 
On the salmon lay bits of ripe tomato, and on this drop a 
tablespoonful of the dressing. Use one level teaspoon- 
ful of mixed seasoning No. 3 to every cup of the dressing. 
This is the general rule for all salads when mixed season- 
ing is used in cooked dressing. 



SALADS AND GARNISHES. 295 

Salmon and Tomato Salad — Home Rule. 

Drain the oil from one pint can of salmon and remove 
the bone, and cut salmon into dice. Place on lettuce 
leaves as in class rule, garnish with the bits of tomato, 
and put on the salad dressing. One cup of the dressing 
seasoned with one teaspoonful of mixed seasoning No. 3, 
will dress the salmon from a pint can. 

Salmon Salad- 
Pick the fish up into small pieces and mix with one- 
third as much hard-boiled egg as there is fish. Season 
highly a cup of oil mayonnaise dressing. Put a layer of 
the fish and egg mixed in the bowl, and put on dressing, 
mix lightly with two silver forks to prevent mushing, 
put on more fish and dressing and mix in the same way 
until all is used. Serve on a lettuce leaf on a cold plate. 
Chopped watercress may be mixed with the dressing. The 
cooked mayonnaise may be used with a fish salad, but is not 
nearly so good. Cream dressing No. 2 (page 286) may 
also be used with salmon salad, using lemon juice instead 
of vinegar in making the dressing. 

Lobster Salad. 

Make in same way as salmon salad, except use lobster 
instead of salmon. A little mustard in a lobster salad is 
beneficial. 

Shrimp Salad. 

Make same as lobster salad. 

Roast Beef Salad. 

Use cooked mayonnaise dressing for this salad. Cut 
well-done roast beef into small cubes. Mix with it an 
equal amount of crisp white celery cut in small pieces. 
Use mixed seasoning No. 3 to make highly seasoned, and 
to each cup of dressing used add one tablespoonful of 
chopped pickles, one of capers, and one of parsley, finely 
minced. 



296 HOUSEHOLD SCIENCE. 

Chicken Salad. 

Cut into dice, free from coarse pieces, four cups of 
chicken (boiled is best). Put the prepared chicken into a 
bowl, and pour over it one-half a cup of French dressing 
(seasoned), mix with two silver forks, set in a cool place 
for an hour, then drain, and mix with it two cups of ten- 
der white celery, cut into pieces a little smaller than the 
chicken. Mix well together and add one cup of seasoned 
dressing, one-third cooked mayonnaise and two-thirds oil 
dressing. To each cup of dressing add two teaspoonfuls 
of mixed seasoning, and also one tablespoonful of chop- 
ped olives, and the same of capers, if desired. 

Sweetbread Salad. 

Cook the sweetbreads in slightly salted water, after 
they have been soaked in salt water until clean. When 
they can easily be pierced with a toothpick, cool in the 
water in which they were cooked. Then tear in pieces and 
let stand in vinegar twenty minutes, and mix with cucum- 
bers or celery which have been prepared and left on ice for 
some time. Use one-third as much cucumber or celery as 
sweetbreads, and dress with a French dressing which con- 
sists of three parts oil to one part vinegar, and is sea- 
soned well with salt and pepper. Serve cold on cold- 
plates. 

Currant and Red Raspberry Salad. 

Currants and raspberries mixed in equal parts are very 
acceptable with no dressing but sugar. Serve with the 
meat course. 

Apple Salad No. 1. 

Make cream dressing No. 2 and season to taste with 
the following mixture : Two level teaspoonfuls of sugar, 
one level teaspoonful of salt. Use very tart and mellow 
apples. Pare them after the dressing is seasoned, and 
quarter and core them, cut each eighth in very thin 
slices, and stir into the dressing at once to prevent turn— 



SALADS AND GARNISHES. 297 

ing dark by contact with the air. Serve on a lettuce leaf, 
or garnish with watercress. 

Apple Salad No. 2. 

Make a cooked salad dressing as on page 285. Have 
the dressing perfectlv cold and mix with it an equal 
amount of whipped cream, and season with the mixture of 
salt and sugar as in No. 1. Much depends on the tartness, 
mellowness, and pleasant flavor of the apple, as the sea- 
sonings are very delicate. 

Apple and Nut Salad. 

Make same as either No. 1 or No. 2, and use half as 
much nuts (English walnuts) as apples. A little lemon 
juice or orange juice may be used to advantage if the 
apples are poor. 

Mixed Fruit Salads No- 1- 

Mix oranges, bananas, and white grapes in equal parts, 
cover with sweetened lemon juice, and stiffen with gela- 
tine. 

Mixed Fruit Salad No. 2. 

Mix grapes and pineapple, cover with lemon juice and 
water mixed as for lemonade, sweeten, and stiffen with 
gelatine. 

Orange and Grape Salad. 

Use Malaga grapes. Cut in two in the center, and re- 
move the seeds. Peel the oranges, divide into sections, 
and remove the thin outer skin. Intersperse oranges 
and grapes in the dish, and pour over them a liquid pre- 
pared the same as for banana salad, except add more 
sugar if acid oranges are used. Harden same as banana 
salad. In making fruit salads in this way, put in a por- 
tion of fruit, and cover it with the liquid, allow this to be- 
come thick, but not solid, then add more fruit, and more 
of the liquid, until the materials are all used. 



298 HOUSEHOLD SCIENCE. 

Banana Salad. 

Three-fourths of a cup of lemon juice, one and one- 
half cups of sugar, two and one-fourth cups of water, one- 
fourth box of phosphate gelatine. Put the gelatine to 
soak in one-fourth cup of the water. When the gelatine is 
soft, pour in the two cups of hot water, and add the su- 
gar and lemon juice, then strain. Peel and slice the 
bananas into a serving dish, pour the gelatine over them, 
and set away in a cool place to harden. Put on cold plates 
when served. 

Banana Salad— Class Rule. 

One-third teaspoonful of gelatine, if granulated gela- 
tine is used. Soak gelatine in one tablespoonful of cold 
water. When soft, set in hot water and stir until dis- 
solved, then add three tablespoonfuls of sugar and five 
tablespoonfuls of water and two tablespoonfuls of lemon 
juice. Stir until sugar is dissolved, then slice full of 
bananas and set away to cool. Serve on cold plates. 

GARNISHES FOR FOOD. 

The material used for decorating a dish may be cooked 
or raw. The decorations may be very simple, or more 
elaborate. In order that any garnish fulfill the purpose 
for which it is intended, it must be of such color, or com- 
bination of colors, as will give the most pleasing effect 
with the dish to be garnished. Not only this, but let it 
be something which can be eaten with the dish if desired. 

Parsley is much used as a garnish. The curly variety 
is most desirable. Chervil also makes a very desirable 
garnish. It has a pleasant flavor, a delicate scent, and a 
beautiful foliage. The pimpernel is also nice when pro- 
curable. It has a dark green color, and resembles the fern 
somewhat in general makeup, or appearance. The odor is 
something like that of a cucumber. 

The beautiful, delicate young leaves of celery, with the 
white stems slit and curled in ice water, make a fine 



SALADS AND GARNISHES. 299 

garnish. Spearmint makes a pretty and appropriate gar- 
nish for roast lamb. Fruit tree leaves, geranium leaves, 
or autumn leaves are appropriately used in garnishing 
a dish of fruit. The ice plant is considered especially 
nice for such garniture. 

Turnips of medium size may be scooped and the shells 
cooked, but not enough to fall to pieces, and used as cups 
for serving peas. Cups, roses, etc., may be made of 
mashed potatoes by using the pastry bag. 

The garnishes which may be made by cutting cooked 
vegetables, hard boiled eggs, etc., into various shapes, are 
many. Jellies molded in various shapes are also fre- 
quently used. Whipped cream makes a pleasing and ap- 
propriate garnish for many desserts. 

Cottage cheese balls, olives, capers, and pimolas are 
often used in garnishing chicken salad. 

References: Food Products of the World — Green- — pp. 205- 
215; Minn. Exp. Station Bulletin No. 54. p. 59; Art of Cook- 
ery — Ewing — p. 315; Parloa's Kitchen Companion, pp. 440-442; 
Elements of Cookery — Williams & Fisher — p. 255: Boston Cook 
ing School Cook Book — Farmer, pp. 287-288. 



CHAPTER XXIII. 

MARKETING— CARE OF FOODS. 

The selection of fresh meats, vegetables, and fruits in 
the city markets has most importance for city people. 
Farmers who supply these foods need to know at what 
points and characteristics the city housewife looks, that 
they may so prepare these foods as to please her eye. 
Only general statements can be written out. The woman 
who regularly visits the markets learns by practice the 
art of selecting these foods. The teacher of cookery can 
teach her pupils far more by practical illustrations than 
by written or spoken statements without the objects for 
illustration. Farmers get choice fresh foods for the bare 
expense of producing them, with no charges from trans- 
portation company, commission man, or merchant. The 
farmers' selection of choice foods for their own tables is 
accomplished mainly by extra care in raising, preparing 
and preserving them. Great progress has been made in 
facilities and methods of preserving foods, both in the 
farmers' home and in factories ; also in raising foods of all 
kinds. 

Farmers may have the choicest foods at very low cost. 
The spread of knowledge of how to raise vegetables, 
fruits, and meats for home consumption on the farm is 
one of the most important works being accomplished by 
agricultural colleges. A garden of vegetables and small 
fruits planted in rows, so as to be cultivated largely by 
horse power, a few pigs, a flock of good hens, some cows, 
and a few sheep supply the farmer's table with the most 
delicious and nutritious foods, at a cost far below that 
realized by any other class of people in the world. We 
are proud of our country, our farms, our farmers, and of 
the great men and women our farms are constantly pro- 



302 HOUSEHOLD SCIENCE. 

ducing. The improved feeding of our farm boys and 
girls which the teaching of agricultural schools promises 
to bring about will have much to do with making the 
future generations of our nation powerful in physique, 
strong in mind, and pure in heart. A few of the leading 
thoughts used in teaching city people how to select foods 
in the markets are given below. 

The wise farmer, in storing food for the needs of his 
stock during the winter, plans to have no waste by fur- 
nishing food in wrong quantities or proportions. The 
animals must thrive, and the food must give the requisite 
amount of heat-giving, muscle-forming, and energy-pro- 
ducing nourishment. The housewife, in solving the food 
question, in relation to her family, must consider the 
same things, and some others in addition to these. She 
may know that nearly one-half of the body is made up 
of muscle, which is one-fifth proteid, and that this, 
whether working proteid or idle proteid, can be built up 
only by furnishing proteid substance. She may under- 
stand that a certain amount of carbohydrates is necessary 
to furnish the energy needed by the body, and a sufficiency 
of carbohydrates and fats to keep up the heat of the body, 
yet if she does not know how "to make the mouth water," 
her family will not relish plain food. Among the many 
things which cannot be classified merely as working con- 
stituents of the food, but which are nevertheless neces- 
sary, are green vegetables, flavoring materials, and fresh 
ripe fruits. Evervthing used in the well-regulated home 
as relish, from the sprig of parsley to the fresh ripe straw- 
berry, has a place to fill, and the consumer never ques- 
tions whether the cellulose of the parsley aids perceptibly 
in giving bulk to his food, nor whether the volatile oil to 
which the strawberry owes a part of its pleasant flavor 
aids any in the carbohydrate effect of the food eaten. No 
amount of skill can bring back to an overripe fruit the fine 
flavor which it possessed when nature pronounced it fin- 
ished. Excessive use of spices and condiments may in 



MARKETING. 303 

some measure conceal the defects of an unsavory soup, but 
they cannot remove them. The most palatable soup can 
only be made by using meats and vegetables possessing a 
good flavor. A knowledge of marketing will enable one 
to have the best that the locality affords, not only as to 
the amount and proportions of food constituents, but as to 
palatability also. Fresh fruit and crisp green vegetables 
will aid in giving a finished aspect to a plain dinner, and 
pleasant sensations to a hungry person. 

To Select Beef. 

Meat from mature and well-fattened cattle has a better 
flavor, and loses less of its weight when cooked, than that 
from younger beef animals. Good beef has a dark red 
color when first cut, which changes to cherry red after 
a few minutes' exposure to the air. It looks juicy, is fine 
grained, is elastic to the touch, and the lean is finely mar- 
bled with dots of fat. A very dark color indicates an old 
animal ; a pale, moist muscle, a very young one ; and a 
bluish or dark red color, poor beef. The meat from the 
central and posterior parts of the back is generally con- 
sidered the most choice, and consequently commands the 
highest price, for agreeableness to the palate is a large fac- 
tor in the current demand and market price. There is, 
as a matter of fact, no more muscle-forming material in an 
ounce of protein from the tenderloin of beef than in an 
ounce from the round or shoulder. The fore quarter of a 
beef contains a larger proportion of bone to meat than the 
hind quarter, and is less tender, but it is quite equal in 
flavor and juiciness. The choicest steak is the porter- 
house, cut from the loin of an animal where the tenderloin 
is largest. It contains both tenderloin and sirloin, sepa- 
rated by a small bone, and is frequently called pin-bone 
steak. Further back the pin-bone centers in a cross-bone 
at the top, and a cut from there is often called a T-bone 
steak. Steaks cut forward from the porterhouse steaks 
have no separating bone in them, but are nevertheless 
called porterhouse steaks at many markets, and are some- 



304 HOUSEHOLD SCIENCE. 

times offered to unsuspecting purchasers when cut so far 
forward that there is no semblance of tenderloin about 
them. When the pin-bone or T-bone is removed from a 
porterhouse steak, and the two parts separated, they are 
known as tenderloin and sirloin steaks, respectively. The 
upper part of the round is used for steaks, and as 
seen on the block it appears as one large muscle, and not 
several muscles, as in that case it is from farther down 
the round and is more apt to be tough. There are a few 
cuts of round which are very choice. These can be easily 
distinguished by the appearance of the bone. The marrow 
stands out very distinctly and has a pinkish hue. Round 
steak is more difficult to broil successfully than sirloin, 
because the juices are thinner, and escape more readily. 
To choose a roast of beef which will have the best flavor, 
be tender and easily cooked, select a porterhouse, a sirloin 
or a choice cut of ribs. The muscle fibres in such cuts are 
so bound together as to make their mechanical subdivision 
easy, with little time and skill in cooking. Such cuts ap- 
pear to be composed largely of a part of one or two large 
muscles, and there is consequently less connective tissue 
than in a cut composed of parts of several small muscles. 
Tf you wish a roast equally nutritious when intelligently 
and skillfully prepared, choose a so-called cheap or tough 
piece of meat, a roast from the chuck ribs or a piece from 
the round. The back of the rump makes a nice roast, but 
it often has part of the backbone and sometimes the rump 
bone in it, and is consequently not very economical. The 
smaller or front end nearest the loin has the most tender 
meat. The part between these two is not so tender. 

To Select Veal. 

Milk- fed calves that are from six to eight weeks old 
make the best veal. The fat about the kidneys in such veal 
is white, and the muscles are a delicate flesh color, and 
firm. The hind quarter is the choicest, and is a little 
higher in price than the fore quarter. The loin makes the 



MARKETING. 305 

finest chops. Cutlets are usually taken from the legs. 
The fillet also comes from the legs. 

To Select Mutton. 

The best mutton is abundant in fat, which is white, 
clear, and solid. The leg bones are white, and the scored 
flesh on the forequarter is red, and the lean meat juicy, 
firm, and of a dark red color. 

In selecting lamb, choose that which has a thick back, 
on which the fat is white. The kidney fat should be white 
also. A thick back indicates nice chops, and if they are 
good, other parts are more likely to be so. The bones of 
lamb should have a pinkish hue. 

To Select Pork. 

The lean of the best fresh pork is of a delicate red color, 
juicy, firm, and fine grained. The fat is white, and the 
skin thin. A thick skin indicates an old animal. 

To Select Hams. 

Medium-sized hams weighing from ten to twelve 
pounds are usually the best. Hams should be plump and 
round, with short tapering shanks, and small bones. The 
fat should be white and firm and the skin thin and un- 
wrinkled. 

To Select Poultry. 

A moderate sized turkey is more apt to be young than 
a larger one. A hen is preferable to a gobler because 
usually plumper, and more delicate in flavor. The legs 
of a turkey should be dark and smooth, and the breast 
bone soft and pliable, as tough skin, rough legs, and a 
firm breast-bone indicate an old turkey. When turkeys 
or other fowls are fresh, the eyes are bright and full, and 
the feet and legs limber. The breast of a goose should 
be plump and white, and the feet yellow and flexible. 
Capons are the greatest delicacies known in the chicken 
line. They retain the tenderness of young chickens, and 
have the size and flavor of mature fowls. The price of 



306 HOUSEHOLD SCIENCE. 

capons depends upon quality, — from eighteen to twenty- 
five cents a pound. The usual weight is from eight to ten 
pounds, but extra lots weigh twelve to fourteen pounds. 
Capons are usually dry picked, leaving the "ruff" (the 
long feathers on the neck), tail and wing quills, and thigh 
feathers ; in fact, about all the picking done is to take the 
small feathers from the breast and body. Poultry for 
market is not drawn, but it must be kept without food for 
twenty-four hours before killing, so that there may be no 
food left in the crop, or the fowl will be apt to become 
tainted after lying awhile. 

A hen over a year old will not roast satisfactorily. 
When buying a chicken for roasting, try the breast-bone. 
If the chicken is young the tip of the bone will be cartil- 
aginous still, and can be easily bent. See that it is not 
merely broken. An older hen is better stewed than 
roasted. If it is roasted at all, it must be first steamed 
until tender. This, of course, draws out the juices some- 
what, thus giving it something of the flavor of a boiled 
fowl. 

To Select Eggs. 

Eggs should have fresh-looking, not shiny, shells. If 
lifted in the hand, they should feel comparatively heavy. 
There is where farmers have the greatest advantage. 
Eggs are selected fresh for them daily. 

To Select Fish. 

In selecting fish, choose those with firm, stiff fins, red 
gills, and full, clear eyes. 

To Select Butter. 

Choose butter by its fresh odor, freedom from butter- 
milk and streaks of color, and see that the flavor is good. 

To Select Berries and Fruits. 

A dry surface is a pretty sure indication of freshness 
in strawberries, raspberries, and blackberries. It is wise 
to pour a portion of the berries from the box into the 



MARKETING. 307 

hand, in order to ascertain whether the quality is the same 
throughout. Plumpness, brightness of skin, and freedom 
from spots of decay are the most reliable indications of 
freshness in such fruits as apples, peaches, plums, cherries, 
grapes, etc. 

To Select Macaroni 

Macaroni should break with a clean, glassy surface, 
and should not be too white. A white appearance indi- 
cates that the flour from which the macaroni was made 
contained a large proportion of starch and little protein. 

To Select Vegetables, etc. 

All vegetables should be unwilted, and if there are 
leaves with them, these should be crisp. The best potatoes 
have smooth, unbroken skins, and should be comparatively 
heavy. Potatoes, carrots, parsnips, etc., of medium size, 
are better than very large ones, as large ones are apt to 
be coarse and less delicate. Corn and peas deteriorate in 
flavor very rapidly, and are at their best very soon after 
gathering. The Spanish onion, a large "white onion, is 
very mild in flavor. Select all onions same as other vege- 
tables. They should be plump, and not too large. Cabbage 
heads should be solid, heavy and unwilted. The heads of 
cauliflower should be close, or solid, the leaves green and 
fresh-looking, and the flowers creamy white. 

To Select Cereals. 

Cereals should be free from insects, and have a fresh 
odor. The best rice has large grains, and very few brok- 
en ones. 
To Select Dry Beans. 

Dry beans, like dried fruit, should be fresh, to give the 
best flavor. The white navy bean is the most desirable, 
as the larger white beans are coarser and less delicate in 
flavor. Dark beans, as red, black, etc., are less delicate 
than white beans. Dried lima beans can be obtained on 
the market, and arc much cheaper, and nearly as good, as 
the canned beans. 



308 HOUSEHOLD SCIENCE. 

To Select Dried Fruit. 

Dried fruit should be free from insects, have a bright 
skin, and a pleasant odor. Evaporated apples and pears 
should be free from cores, and not too white, as this some- 
times indicates excessive bleaching, and consequent con- 
tamination with sulphur. 
Object of Sulphuring Apples. 

Extracts from Bulletin No. 48, U. S. Department of 
Agriculture, Division of Chemistry : 

"By reason of the oxidizing effects of the air, the 
freshly-cut surfaces of the apples soon turn brown. The 
sulphuring prevents this, and preserves the natural color 
of the fruit for a considerable period when exposed to the 
air. 

"It might be supposed that the sulphuring of the whole 
apples before slicing would not be sufficient to preserve 
the fresh color of the surfaces after slicing. The time of 
exposure does not usually exceed half an hour. Expe- 
rience shows that this is quite sufficient to preserve the 
fresh color of the surface after slicing and to prevent them 
becoming dark during the process of evaporation. The 
quantity of sulphurous acid which is absorbed is not 
sufficient in any way to impair the flavor of the fruit. 

"While it is evident that the process of sulphuring 
is in no sense a sterilizing proceeding, yet it seems suffi- 
cient to prevent insects depositing their eggs upon the 
evaporated slices to at least a certain extent. Neverthe- 
less insects have been found in some of the slices collected 
for analysis. As a further protection against insects in 
dried fruits, Hilgard states that the sulphuring is some- 
times repeated after evaporation. This process is to be 
condemned becauses the dried fruit retains more per- 
sistently the sulphurous acid, which affects its flavor 
very seriously. 

"The consumer has reason to object to the sulphuring 
of the dried fruit for two reasons, one of which is that the 
ill-prepared or damaged fruit, which otherwise could not 



CARE OF POODS. 309 

be sold, is bleached and made presentable in the market, 
and, second, that the flavor of the fruit is either seriously 
impaired or totally destroyed. Such sulphured fruit con- 
tains also considerable quantities of the sulphurous acid, 
the excessive consumption of which may impair digestion 
and affect the health of the consumer. 

"It is probable that the zinc contained in evaporated 
apples exists entirely in the form of organic salts the most 
abundant of which is zinc malate. All writers on toxi- 
cology agree that in certain quantities zinc salts exercise a 
poisonous effect, while the continued administration of 
zinc salts in smaller quantities has not been known to 
produce any very decided disturbance of the physiological 
functions of the body. Yet the continued administration 
of zinc salts, even in minute doses, cannot be recom- 
mended. All authorities agree that, even if zinc be re- 
garded as poisonous, it is decidedly less so than lead and 
copper. 

"The continued use of bodies that are not distinctly 
poisonous, but which are foreign to the natural constitu- 
ents of the system, may finally produce derangement of 
the health, and for this reason the manufacturers of evap- 
orated fruits in this country should pursue such processes 
as would exclude even the traces of zinc above mentioned. 
The zinc in evaporated apples comes from the galvanized 
iron wire cloth used in making the trays on which they 
are evaporated." 

CARE OF FOODS. 

Canned goods should be kept in a cool, dark place. 
Preserved goods, as jellies, jams, etc., should be covered 
with paraffine or with paper to keep out dust and mold, 
and are better kept cool and dry. Pickles keep better 

References: U. S. Dept. Agr., Div. of Chemistry, Bulletin 
No. 13, pt. 7, pp. 908, 920, 926, 927; U. S. Dept. Agr., Div. of 
Chemistry, Bulletin No. 48, pp. 9, 35, 36; U. S. Dept. Agr., 
Farmers' Bulletin No. 122, pp. 22, 23;Wyo. Exp. Station Bul- 
letin No. 33, pp. 82-84. 



310 HOUSEHOLD SCIENCE. 

when the surface of the liquid is covered with horserad- 
ish leaves, and a piece of cheesecloth tied over the top. 
This will admit some air without the contents being ex- 
posed to dust and insects. 

Fresh berries should be emptied from the box into a 
dish presenting a large surface to the air, as a meat plat- 
ter, and set in a cool, dry place where the air circulates 
around them. No fruit should be crowded. A bunch of 
bananas should be hung. All fruit is better kept in a 
cool, airy place. 

Soup stock, if to be kept a day or so, should have the 
fat left intact over the top, as this aids in preserving it. 
Eggs should be kept in a cool, well-ventilated room. 
They will absorb odors from the surrounding air. If 
broken eggs are to be kept in bulk for a short time, cover 
the top of the vessel with several thicknesses of damp 
cloth, or a tight-fitting cover. 

Meat in large pieces should be hung so that the air can 
pass around it, and of course kept cool, but not frozen. 
Veal should never be laid on a dish, but always hung, as 
it deteriorates rapidly. Fish should be cooked as soon as 
possible after coming into the house, as they deteriorate 
rapidly, and cannot well be kept with other things. 
Never pierce meat while cooking, as you lose some flavor 
that way, and the juices which escape burn readily. 

Tea, coffee, spices, and all things liable to lose flavor 
should be kept closely covered. 

Codfish should be kept where it will not dry out too 
much, and it should not be kept with other things. Salt 
fish and salted or pickled pork must be weighted to keep 
it under the brine, else it will have a bad flavor. 

Milk and butter should be kept alone, and where the 
air about them cannot be contaminated with any unpleas- 
ant odor. 

The jar in which yeast is kept should be sterilized at 
least once a week. The bread box should be scalded and 
sunned every baking day. 



CARE OF FOODS. 311 

If dried fruits are to be kept over summer, they should 
be put into tin cans early, before insects are about, and 
a cloth pasted closely over where the cover meets the side 
of the can. All left-overs should be used as soon as 
possible. Cereals should be kept in glass or tin recep- 
tacles with tightly-fitting; covers. Keep molasses in a cool 
place during the summer. If vegetables are kept in the 
cellar, have tight partitions, without a door, between them 
and the milk room. 

To keep an angel cake a few days, let it stand in the 
pan, as it dries out less rapidly. Butter cakes stay fresh 
much longer when frosted. Flour must be kept cool and 
dry, as well as away from insects. Bread and cake 
should be kept in receptables which can be frequently 
washed and scalded. These must be close enough for 
cleanliness, but not air-tight. 

Cheese needs air, but must be protected from all insects. 
When cheese is cut, cover the cut portion with oiled paper 
before putting away. 

Smoked meat should be kept in a cool, dry, and dark 
place, and must be protected from insects. Smoked meat 
will keep for a time buried in oats, provided the place 
is well ventilated, dark and dry. Each piece of meat may 
be sewed in a piece of muslin drawn smoothly over it, and 
the outside whitewashed. Meat may be buried in ashes 
after covering with paper. It must be protected from 
insects, and kept dry to prevent mold. 

References: Mechanical Refrigeration— J. E. Siebel— pp. 
160-164; Minn. Farmers' Inst. Ann. No. 9, p. 212; U. S. Dept. 
Agr., Farmers' Bulletin No. 85, p. 29. 



CHAPTER XXIV 

PASTES AND STARCH PREPARATIONS. 

Under this head we will consider macaroni, tapioca, 
etc. Italy has long been famous for the excellent quality 
of macaroni produced there. It grows a wheat which 
is harder and more glutenous than that . grown in 




Pastes Used in Soups. 



most countries, though Russia produces a wheat of sim- 
ilar quality. Until recently very simple machinery was 
used, and the output for each factory was small. At the 
present time, a single press can manufacture into maca- 
roni ten to twenty barrels of flour a day. The three most 
common forms of the paste are macaroni, spaghetti, and 
vermicelli, but there are, besides these, many fanciful 
forms, and special small pastes used in soups. Amer- 
ica has good machinery and skilled labor, but this soil and 



PASTES AND STARCHES. 313 

climate have not yet grown a wheat which is equal to that 
of Italy and Russia for this purpose. 

Macaroni. 

Macaroni is considered an excellent form of food', being 
both very wholesome and digestible. When made of 
good flour it contains a large amount of nutriment in 
the form of starch, protein and mineral matter. It is so 
dry that there is practically no loss in weight, and it is 
an economical article of diet. It can be prepared in 
a great variety of ways, and should often find a place on 
our tables. 

Sago. 

Sago is a starchy substance, made from a species of 
palm growing in the low lands of the East Indies. The 
tree does not grow high, but has a thick trunk, and at 
a certain time in its growth there is only a thin shell of 
wood on the outside, the entire central portion being filled 
with a starch-bearing substance. The starch is extracted 
by a series of manipulations and made into the sago of 
commerce. There are several varieties of sago. That 
which has been simply dried is like other starch, 
insoluble in cold water, but swells and becomes 
clear when boiled in water. There is another variety 
which has been so treated in the manufacturing process 
that it is partially soluble in cold water. Sago is some- 
times adulterated by the addition of potato starch. Such 
can be easily detected by the use of the microscope, as the 
granules of potato starch are larger and more regular in 
outline. 

Tapioca. 

Tapioca is manufactured from the large, succulent 
roots of the tropical plant known as "rnanihot." It is 
extensively cultivated in tropical America, and on the 
coast of Africa. The roots are grated, and the starch 
left to settle from the extracted juice. 



314 HOUSEHOLD SCIENCE. 

The pulp which remains may be made into a bread-like 
cake called "cassava," or dried and used for porridge, etc. 
There is one variety, the juice of which contains a poison- 
ous acid, but it is driven off by heat, so that the prepared 
products are wholesome. When the starch has settled, it 
is dried on heated plates, and constantly stirred. This 
gives us the tapioca of commerce. Brazil arrowroot has 
the same source as tapioca, but it is dried without heating, 
and is known as "tapioca meal," or "Brazilian arrowroot." 

Arrowroot. 

Arrowroot is the name of the starch derived from the 
root of some species of maranta. Arrowroot gives the 
most transparent and delicate liquid, when cooked, of 
any of the starches commonly used, and is esteemed in 
cookery, and is much used for infants and invalids. The 
plant from which arrowroot is made is largely cultivated 
in Bermuda and Jamaica. It is also grown to some ex- 
tent in Georgia and Florida. The roots, or, more prop- 
erly, rhizomes, are the starch-bearing portion of the 
plant. The amount of starch produced varies at different 
ages of the plant, but when at their best, the roots pro- 
duce about twenty-five per cent, of starch. This starch 
is sometimes adulterated with potato starch. 

Cornstarch. 

Cornstarch is the only other starch used to any consid- 
erable extent for food, though there is no perceptible rea- 
son why wheat and potato starches should not be used if 
they are sufficiently cheap to render their use advisable. 

References: Enc. Brit. "Tapioca," "Arrowroot," "Sago;" 
Chemistry of Cookery— Williams— pp. 186-190; Goodholme's 
Domestic Cyclopedia, p. 340; Johnson's "Universal Cyclopedia; 
Century Dictionary & Cyclopedia; Chambers' Encyclopedia. 



CHAPTER XXV. 

MILK. 

It requires two pounds of milk to furnish as much 
nutriment as is found in three-fourths of a pound of beef 
of good quality. Six ounces of bread supplies an equal 
amount of nutriment, but the nutritive value of the given 
amounts of the three are not exactly the same. According 
to the latest advices on the food value of milk, it would 
make a better single food than meat, because the nutri- 
ents are more nearly in the right proportion, but it is 
not adapted as a single food for man. The proportion of 
water to solid material is so great that a very large 
quantity would have to be consumed to obtain the re- 
quired amount of solid matter. There is too much pro- 
tein for the fats and carbohydrates present. Milk is a 
perfect food only for the young of the animal of its own 
species. Cow's milk is a perfect food for the calf, but not 
for the human infant. There are certain diseased condi- 
tions in which milk alone is considered the best food for 
a time, but this should not be continued after the diges- 
tive organs are strong enough to make use of other foods 
with it. There is a law of nature to the effect that an or- 
gan which is not used, or which is misused, shall either 
cease to exist, or lose its power. Milk is ordinarily di- 
gested in the upper part of the digestive tract, and should 
have used with it some of the grain foods, beans, cheese, 
and other foods which are digested largely in the lower 
part of the digestive canal. Cattle thrive better on a ra- 
tion containing some hay, than one consisting of grain 
alone. The same necessity, to a less degree, exists with 
man. The digestive tract needs a certain amount of bulk 

References: U. S. Dept. Agr., Farmers' Bulletin No 74 pp 
9-21; 



316 HOUSEHOLD SCIENCE. 

in the food to keep ail the digestive organs employed, and 
to produce healthy action. 

Milk is very valuable in the culinary art, both because 
it gives greater food value, and because it increases the 
palatability of many dishes. When milk instead of cream 
must be used in coffee, hot milk will give a better flavor 
than cold milk, and leaves the beverage hot. Stewed 
onions have a less decided and consequently better flavor 
when served with milk dressing. Bread has a greater 
food value when milk is used in making it. The sauces 
in which milk may be used are very numerous, and in 
each case it embellishes the dish with which it is used, and 
gives it additional nutriment. For most persons milk 
is the best-known beverage. The following are, in sub- 
stance, the conclusions drawn from an experiment made 
in the boarding hall of the University of Maine, in which 
the object was to ascertain the effect of a limited and un- 
limited supply of milk : 

"(i) The dietaries in which milk was more abundant- 
ly supplied were somewhat less costly than the others, and 
at the same time were fully as acceptable. (2) The 
increased consumption of milk had the effect of materially 
increasing the proportion of protein in the diet. (3) 
The milk actually supplied the place of other food mate- 
rials, and did not, as many suppose, simply furnish an 
additional amount of food, without diminishing the quan- 
tity of other materials. (4) The results indicate that 
milk should not be regarded as a luxury, but as an 
economical article of diet, which families with moderate 
incomes may freely purchase as a probable means of 
improving the character of the diet, and of cheapening 
the cost of the supply of animal food." * 

Whole milk is more palatable than skim milk, but there 
is practically no difference in the amount of muscle- 
forming material in the two. Milk has three and 
three-tenths per cent, of protein ; lean meat contains about 

*U. S. Dept. Agr., Office Exp. Stations, Bulletin No. 37. 



MILK. 317 

thirteen per cent, of protein. Prof. Atwater says there is 
about the same amount of actual nutritive materials in the 
protein of the two. The nutrients differ both in number 
and kind in the two foods. 

Milk contains a large percentage of water. This holds 
some of the solids in solution, and aids in their assimila- 
tion by carrying them to the tissues of the bouy. 
The microscopic fat globules of milk are merely held in 
suspension, they are lighter than other parts of the liquid. 
When milk sets in a cool place, they rise to the surface 
in the form of cream, as little wooden balls would rise to 
the surface of water. 

Cream contains practically all the butter fat of the 
milk, if it has been carefully separated. It contains also 
some milk, more when hand-skimmed than when re- 
moved by the separator. Cream is valuable largely for its 
heat-giving properties. Cream and butter are not eco- 
nomical sources of fat, but their delicious flavor makes 
many other foods so much more palatable that they are 
highly prized as food materials. 

The value of milk is usually gauged by the amount of 
fat it contains. The reason for this is, there are so many 
things which cause the amount of fat to vary, such as the 
change of weather, method of handling, etc. The milk of 
different breeds of cattle varies greatly in composition. 
With regard to this subject, Prof. Voorhees says : 

"The influence of breed is very marked ; so much so 
that dairy breeds are classified into milk and butter 
breeds, that is, those which give a large quantity of poorer 
quality, and those which give a smaller quantity of higher 
quality. With the improvement of the stock by the 
introduction of recognized butter producing breeds of 
cows, the quality of the product materially improves. 
Milk which is rich in fats is more apt to be rich in other 
nutriments, and vice versa. The most common adultera- 
tions of milk reduce the fat either by skimming or by 
adding water." 



318 HOUSEHOLD SCIENCE. 

The farmer has another reason to be thankful that he 
need not depend upon the market for milk. The varia- 
tion in composition of pure milk is so great as to make 
it possible to pay very much more for the nutrients in 
one quart of milk than another at the same price per 
quart. 

"The carbohydrate of milk is in the form of milk sugar. 
This is a white powder of low sweetening power. It 
resembles cane sugar in chemical composition, but is much 
less soluble. When milk sours, some of the sugar is 
changed to lactic acid, which has the effect of coagulating 
the casein. When about eight-tenths of one per cent, 
of acid has developed, fermentation ceases, so that the 
sour milk may still contain much of the original milk 
sugar, but sour milk is often injurious to the digestive 
organs, and the value of the remaining nutrients may be 
much reduced. In each one hundred pounds of milk there 
are about seven-tenths of a pound of mineral matter, 
chiefly phosphates and chlorides of potash, soda, and lime. 

"Milk is probably the most susceptible of all foods to 
contamination from its surroundings. It is also admir- 
ably adapted for carrying dirt and disease into the 
human system. People living in towns and villages must 
trust to the vigilance of inspectors and the honesty of the 
dairymen for a supply of pure milk. The farmer who 
understands the best methods of feeding and handling 
cows, and knows the necessity of absolute cleanliness in 
caring for all utensils used about the milk, as well as the 
place of keeping it, is in little danger of the many evils 
which have their source in the milk supply of the city. 

"The sources of contamination of milk are very numer- 
ous. In ill-ventilated barns there will be dust from the 
hay floating in the air, ready to enter the freshly drawn 
milk. During the milking, dust and dirt are brushed 
from the under side of the cow's body. The hairs which 
find their way into the milk often carry large numbers of 



MILK. 319 

germs. When milk stands, a sediment often collects in 
the bottom of the vessel, which can be credited to nothing 
bnt the carelessness of the milker. Unless the milker 
makes a cleanly toilet before beginning the milking, dirt 
from his hands and clothing is apt to enter the milk. 
Thorough cleaning of all milk vessels with pure water is 
always very essential. Impure water may affect the milk- 
very much, and bacterial contamination is often carried 
into the milk when it is diluted with water. After the 
milk enters the house, it must be kept in a cool, well- 
ventilated room, or it will be further contaminated." t 

Conn says: "Practically all fresh milk contains bac- 
teria. It is possible in some cases to obtain milk which 
is free from them, but it is very difficult. In spite of 
cleanly methods, sterilized vessels, and the greatest care 
to prevent dirt and dust entering the milk, in the majority 
of cases some bacteria are present." 

The most rigid cleanliness usually prevents the intro- 
duction of any harmful organisms. Vaughn believes "ty- 
rotoxicon may originate in milk of long standing in 
closed vessels, owing to putrefactive changes which are 
due to minute organisms. The introduction of these 
organisms into milk hastens putrefaction, and consequent- 
ly the formation of ptomaines. Milk from cows kept in 
filthy stables is likely to undergo speedy putrefaction, and 
poisonous germs may also adhere to the sides of any 
vessels which are not kept absolutely clean."* 

When milk stands a few hours, if it is in its normal 
condition, it undergoes what is known as lactic fermenta- 
tion. In sour milk, some of the sugar has been changed 
to lactic acid, the food value of which is probably less than 
that of the sugar which the milk contained previous to 
souring. Buttermilk has about the same food value as 
skim milk, unless much water has been added in the 
churn. "The acid-forming species of bacteria are of the 

f U. S. Dept. Agr. , Office Exp. Stations Bulletin No. 25. 
* Ptomaines and Loucomaines, Vaughn. 



320 HOUSEHOLD SCIENCE. 

greatest importance of any of the numerous species found 
in milk. The bacteria which produces slimy fermenta- 
tion sometimes causes much trouble in dairies, as slimy 
milk produces no cream, and is useless for all ordinary 
purposes. There is a fermentative process which pro- 
duces what is known as 'blue milk.' When growing in 
ordinary milk, the effect of this organism is very marked. 
For a few hours no change is noticed, but just about the 
time when the milk begins to become acid, some intense 
blue patches make their appearance. The faster the acid 
forms, the quicker the coagulation appears, and the 
smaller are the blue patches ; while if the acid is produced 
more slowly, the blue patches are larger and of better 
color. There can be little doubt that the cause of blue 
milk is always some unknown source of filth. Blue milk 
is always an infection due to outside contamination, and 
its remedy is always to be found in care and cleanliness. 

"A consideration of the subject of souring of milk would 
not be complete without reference to the effect of electric- 
ity. The popular belief that thunder storms will sour 
milk is so widespread that it would seem as if there must 
be some foundation for it. It has been asserted by many 
that the ozone produced in the air by electricity causes the 
milk to sour. In experiments in which electric sparks were 
discharged over the surface of milk, however, little or no 
effect has been produced upon it. The conclusion is that 
electricity is not of itself capable of souring milk, or even 
of materially hastening the process. Nor can the ozone 
developed during the thunderstorms be looked upon as 
of any great importance. It seems probable that the con- 
nection between a thunderstorm and the souring of milk 
is one of a different character. Bacteria grow more 
rapidly in the warm, sultry conditions which usually pre- 
cede a thunderstorm, and it frequently happens that the 
thunderstorm and the souring occur together, not be- 

*U. S. Dept. Agr., Farmers' Bulletin No. 29; also, Farm- 
ers' Bulletin No. 9. 



MILK. 321 

»:ause the thunder has hastened the souring, but rather 
because the climatic conditions which have brought the 
storm have at the same time been such as to cause un- 
usually rapid bacterial growth. This fact has been veri- 
fied by many experiments, which have shown that, with- 
out the presence of lactic organisms, there can be no 
spontaneous souring of milk. 

"Milk deprived of bacteria will keep sweet during thun- 
derstorms. Dairymen find no difficulty in keeping milk, 
if it is cooled immediately after being drawn from the 
cow, and is kept cool. Milk submerged in cool water is 
not affected by thunderstorms. Dairymen find that dur- 
ing 'dog-day' weather, even when there is no thunder, 
it is just as difficult to keep milk as it is during thunder- 
storms ; and they also find that thorough cleanliness in 
regard to the milk vessels is the best possible preventative 
against souring milk during a thunderstorm. It is safe to 
conclude, therefore, that in all cases it is the bacteria 
which sour the milk, and if there seems to be a casual 
connection between the thunder and the souring, it is an 
indirect one only. Climatic conditions have hastened 
bacterial growth, and have also brought on the thunder- 
storms. The same conditions would affect milk in ex- 
actly the same way, even though no thunderstorm were 
produced, and this effect, our dairymen tell us, is fre- 
quently observed during the warm, sultry, autumn days." 

There are various drinks made from milk, among 
which are koumiss and matzoon. For many generations 
the nomadic tribes of Tartary have prepared koumiss 
from mare's milk. In recent times it has been prepared in 
America from cow's milk by the use of small quantities 
of yeast and sugar, keeping the milk at the temperature 
necessary for the best results. It is considered a valuable 
liquid for invalids in some cases. Matzoon is another 
milk preparation made by the addition of a ferment. 
Condensed milk is prepared by cooling the milk to 



322 HOUSEHOLD SCIENCE. 

6o° F., then quickly heating to a temperature of 185 ° F., 
at which point the water is evaporated. The tempera- 
ture is not allowed to fall below 160 F. until the 
bulk is reduced to about one-fourth its original volume. 
If sweetening is used it should be added at this time. 
There is also an unsweetened condensed milk which is 
claimed to be thoroughly sterilized. The article known 
as "evaporated cream" is simply milk evaporated to a 
creamy consistency. 

The fuel value of skim milk is only about one-half that 
of whole milk on account of the loss of the cream. Ex- 
perimenters have found that skim milk contains nearly 
all the muscle and bone-forming elements of the original 
milk, as well as nearly all the milk sugar. One can buy 
as much energy-giving food for a certain amount of 
money in skim milk as in whole milk, because the loss of 
fat in the skim milk is balanced by the greater number 
of pounds available for the same money, giving more 
sugar, and both are energy-producing foods. In buying 
whole milk, one would pay twice as much for an equal 
amount of muscle-forming food as in skim milk. 

It is wise to use skim milk freely, in preparing many 
foods for the table, in families where there are little 
children, not only on account of its use rendering the food 
more palatable, but because the albumen and casein of the 
milk are excellent materials for the production of muscle 
in young and growing children, and the mineral matter 
is very useful in forming a solid framework for the 
body. 

"In one hundred pounds of skim milk there are about 
three and one-half pounds of casein and albumen. When 
we take into consideration the large amount of water in 
both skim milk and buttermilk (eighty-seven per cent in 
skim milk, and ninety per cent in buttermilk), this is a 
relatively large amount of muscle-forming material. 
After removing the water from one hundred pounds of 
skim milk, there will be left about nine and three-fourths 



MILK. 323 

pounds of solid matter, of which three and one-half 
pounds are casein and albumen, five and one-fourth 
pounds are milk sugar, a little more than three-fourths of 
a pound is ash, while the remainder is composed of fat and 
traces of other constituents." * 

* Minn. Farmers' Inst. Ann. 1896, No. 9, pp. 66-68. 

* Monrad's New Edition of "Pasteurization and Milk Pres- 
ervation." 



CHAPTER XXVI. 

INVALID COOKERY. 

In invalid cookery, cleanliness and good appearance 
are of great importance. Food and medicine are under 
the physician's direction, but after the kinds and quanti- 
ties of food have been designated, the nurse has still much 
for which she is personally responsible. She must select, 
prepare, and serve the food. 




Invalid's Tray. 

An educated woman is a thinking woman. The nurse 
who has a true knowledge of foods thinks when she 
goes to the market, and endeavors to decide what selection 
will best subserve the needs of her patient, restricted as 
she is in the kind of food which he can take. If the 
physician has ordered fish for his patient, she is careful 
to select a fish with bright eyes, firm flesh, and stiff fins, 
for she knows that all fish deteriorate very rapidly, and 
that unless properly cared for by the fisherman they are 
unfit for food when first placed on the market. A wise 



INVALID COOKERY. 325 

person avoids oysters which have an especially plump ap- 
pearance, as they have, in all probability, been "floated," 
which in some cases affects their food value deleteriously, 
though they sell for a high price. 

A piece of meat or a fowl which has been ripened to 
just the proper degree will not be long in passing beyond 
that stage, unless carefully protected. A cup of oysters or 
a piece of fish will spoil in a very short time if left in a 
warm kitchen. The carefully selected food must not be 
lost sight of until it is safe in a cool, well-ventilated place. 
Victuals are often unfit for use when not actually spoiled, 
and the sick person's taste will decide with great alacrity 
whether the article has the most perfect flavor. That 
such food is distasteful is not the only evil effect. Bac- 
teria are constantly at work under favorable circum- 
stances, and their products are often deleterious to 
health. A change, so slight as not to be noticed by a well 
person, might be sufficient to materially disturb the di- 
gestion of an invalid. 

Diets are roughly divided into liquid, light, and dry; 
convalescent diet may be added also. 

Liquid diet is used, of course, in cases in which solid 
food cannot be taken. Milk is important among the 
liquids so used. It is given in its pure state, or variously 
diluted. It is used hot or cold, and may be flavored with 
ginger, cinnamon, nutmeg, chocolate, coffee, lemon, etc. 

Some ways in which milk may be used: (i) by di- 
luting with mineral water; (2) by diluting with alkaline 
water; (3) by diluting with hot water; (4) acid prepara- 
tions, as lobbered milk; (5) wheys, as wine whey, vine- 
gar whey, rennet whey, etc.; (6) broths made with 
milk, as oyster broth and clam broth; (7) prepared 
milks, as condensed milk, sterilized milk, malted milk, 
etc. 

If the physician orders a diet of milk, the nurse must 
serve milk alone, but it does not follow that it should 
always be served in the same cup or glass, or in the same 



326 HOUSEHOLD SCIENCE. 

form. Serve it in different dishes, in varied and attrac- 
tive forms, and with different flavorings, if permitted. 
Extreme care is necessary to keep milk in such condition 
that it will be wholesome. The cleanest and purest of 
milk procurable contains many micro-organisms, and 
they multiply very rapidly. The vessels in which milk 
is kept must be thoroughly washed and scalded every 
time a fresh supply of milk is brought in. If the milk 
can is a tin one, see that the scalding water reaches every 
portion of the can, and that it is free from every trace 
of milk. Pour the boiling water out over the seam, for 
here is a chance for dirt to cling. 'Unless the milk has 
been chilled before it was brought to you, set it in cold 
water and stir until it is cold ; then set where it will be 
very cold, but not freeze. Mild antiseptics, such as 
borax, boracic acid, and salicylic acid are sometimes used 
for preserving milk for domestic purposes, but these 
should never be used for either sick or well, because they 
prevent the digestive organs doing their work in the 
best manner. Disease is sometimes caused by their use. 

Milk may be preserved for a time by sterilizing or 
pasteurizing, and is often so prepared for invalids. Such 
treatment changes the flavor somewhat, but the taste is 
not usually objectionable. Condensed milk, diluted with 
about two parts water, is sometimes substituted for fresh 
milk. 

In some cases, the recovery of health depends, in a 
great degree, on the ability of the nurse to furnish deli- 
cate, delicious, attractive, and, above all, digestible and 
nourishing, food. 

If the smoke on a broiled steak is distasteful to a pa- 
tient, the difficulty may be removed by broiling the steak 
in paper, or cooking it in the upper part of a double 
boiler. 

When a varied diet is allowed, the nurse should skill- 
fully and tactfully ascertain the wishes of her patient ; 
then prepare just such a meal as he wants, and serve it at 



INVALID COOKERY. 327 

the exact hour that it should be served. The life of a con- 
valescent is not a very eventful one, and the nurse who 
can serve a well-cooked, dainty meal at just the right 
time aids in his improvement, both physically and men- 
tally, by putting his mind at rest on this one point, at 
least. He no longer wonders whether he will have a 
satisfactory meal today. 

There are at least two reasons why it is necessary that 
the nurse learn as early as possible the amount of food 
required by the patient: (i) He requires a sufficient 
amount of nourishment. A thoughtful woman knows 
practically how much nutritive material the food used 
contains. If the kinds of food are limited, and the pa- 
tient cannot take a sufficient amount of food in one form, 
some means must be devised for preparing it in such 
form that it will be both palatable and digestible. A 
food becomes distasteful, no matter how palatable it may 
be at first, if it is offered too often in the same form. (2) 
If too large an amount is served, a delicate stomach will 
sometimes rebel, when the proper amount would be at- 
tractive. Better err by serving too little than too much. 
The practice of overserving is a very wasteful one, for 
an invalid does not care for made-over dishes, and they 
are not best for him. Food has its best flavor when fresh 
cooked and is in general more easily made use of in the 
body. If the patient insists that a certain tidbit is 
specially fine, and wishes it reserved, let it be so, but lay it 
away in a cool, clean place. Do not leave it in the room. 
When preparing a meal for the patient, arrange the 
dishes on the tray before beginning the cooking, that 
there may be no delay in serving when the food is 
ready. See that the tray is large enough to admit all 
that is necessary without crowding, but do not have 
much vacant space. The perfectly clean tray should be 
covered with a clean, well-ironed tray cloth. The dishes 
should be the prettiest the house affords, and if colored, 
should be such as to present a peaceful, restful effect. 



328 HOUSEHOLD SCIENCE. 

For instance, when you use some blue or yellow dishes, 
let the rest be white. Orange-colored pieces, if not 
vivid, are pretty with violet or pale gold dishes. The 
following, attributed to a famous artist, illustrates the 
effect of inharmonious combinations on a delicate organ- 
ism : "I remember once being called upon to paint a 
portrait of quite a pretty girl. She was dark, and wore 
a blue waist of an unbecoming shade. I couldn't see 
that girl's face, for the detestable bodice seemed to shriek 
and scream at me." Similar emotions might be awaken- 
ed in an invalid by giving him a tray covered with a red 
cloth, and furnished with yellow and pink dishes. The 
tray cloth should always be white, no matter what dishes 
are used. Green tea is very attractive when served in a 
Nile green cup, but blue china should not be used on the 
tray at the same time. Clear coffee is very attractive 
when served in a yellow cup of just the right shade, and 
the invalid finds it easier to take beef juice when the un- 
pleasant color is disguised by a red glass ; but when 
both are used at once the one detracts from the other, 
so far as the person is affected by the colors. 

Fashions change in the manner of serving food, the 
same as in other things, but there are a few things that 
must not be lost sight of whatever the fashion may be: 
Serve the coffee or tea in a clean hot metal or earthenware 
pot of small size. See that the cup is warm also. Serve 
soup or broth in a hot cup with a hot cover. See that there 
are warm dishes for the things that are to be served 
warm, and cold dishes for such as are to be served cold. 
See that toasts, steaks, etc., go directly from the broiler 
to the patient, and that cold dishes are served directly after 
removing from refrigerator. Set the tray before the in- 
valid with the plate in front of him, the cup at the right 
hand and salt and pepper within reach, and all things in 
their proper places on the tray. When the patient has 
finished, remove everything used during the meal from 
the room. Both food and water absorb impurities very 
readily. 



INVALID COOKERY. 329 

It is always well to have a few flowers on the tray. 
It is better to use only dainty blossoms, and very few 
at a time. Green is always restful, and the slender fern, 
when procurable, is almost invariably welcomed. 

In filling a glass or cup for an invalid, be sure that you 
do not spill a drop, and do not fill the cup or glass too 
full. It is not only bad form, but it is hard to prevent 
spilling, especially in an unsteady hand. 

When the patient has so far recovered as to be out 
of danger, and needs nourishing food to build up the 
system, care is often necessary still to avoid overserving, 
and the patient needs a variety of well-cooked food. 

Koumiss. 

One pint of skimmed milk, one-fourth cup of hot water, 
one-sixteenth of a yeast cake, one level tablespoonful of 
sugar, one level tablespoonful of water to mix the yeast 
with. Scald the milk before using. Mix the ingredients, 
put into clean beer bottles or magnesia bottles, close tight 
and let stand ten or twelve hours in about the same heat 
as for raising bread, then put in cold place six hours. 

Milk Shake. 

Put a cup of milk in a glass jar, sweeten to taste, and 
flavor with fruit or vanilla, or put in a little preserves or 
jelly, if liked. Pack in ice until very cold, then shake un- 
til it froths well on top. 

Egg Nog. 

One egg (beaten separately), one tablespoonful of 
sugar. Beat the yolk, and add to it three tablespoonfuls 
of cream or milk. May add more milk afterwards if de- 
sired. Mix the yolks and whites, and add more liquid, 
or add a little lemon juice, nutmeg, or ginger, or some- 
thing of the kind, if the plain egg nog becomes un- 
palatable. May heat the milk to near the boiling point 
but do not boil. Egg nog usually has spirits of some 
kind added, but fruit juice is better. 



330 HOUSEHOLD SCIENCE. 

Apple Water. 

Slice a tart apple in very thin pieces, and cover with 
boiling water. Set on back of range, and cook gently 
until the apples are soft, strain and serve. 

Tamarind Water. 

Wash tamarinds, break into two-inch pieces, and 
cover with boiling water. Let cool, strain, and serve cold 
in the place of lemonade as a change. 

Flaxseed Water — Home Rule. 

Pour one pint of boiling water over one tablespoonful 
of flaxseed, and let steep two or three hours. Strain, and 
flavor with apricot water or lemon juice. 

Flaxseed Water — Class Rule. 

Flaxseed, two teaspoonfuls to one cup of water, juice 
of one-half a lemon, sugar one tablespoonful. Strain and 
serve. 

Apricot Water. 

Wash the apricots, and soak in cold water until well 
swollen and soft, cook half an hour, pour the water off, 
sweeten to taste, and serve cold. 

Toast Water. 

Make dry toast, break into small pieces, put in a bowl, 
and cover with boiling water. Cover the bowl with a 
plate, and let stand a few minutes, then drain the water 
off, and serve hot or cold. 

Hot Lemonade No. 1. 

One good-sized lemon to about four glasses of water, 
if not desired very strong, otherwise use one lemon to 
two glasses. Use two level tablespoonfuls of sugar to 
each glass. Squeeze the lemons, pour hot water over the 
juice, sweeten and serve. 
Hot Lemonade No. 2. 

Bake a lemon until soft, and with a spoon remove the 
pulp. Pour over it boiling water (one cup), sweeten to 
taste, strain, and serve while still hot. 



INVALID COOKERY. 331 

Cream of Tartar Tea, 

Two teaspoonfuls of cream of tartar, one glass of water, 
sweeten to taste, and serve. 

Cranberry Water. 

One-quarter cup of cranberries, one-quarter cup of 
water. Cook together, then add two tablespoonfuls of 
sugar, strain, add one cup of water, cool and serve. 
Curant Shrub. 

Currant juice (canned) five teaspoonfuls, two level tea- 
spoonfuls of sugar and one glass of water. The juice 
from fresh currants may be used in the same way. 

Mulled Buttermilk. 

One pint of buttermilk, one cup of cream, one rounding 
tablespoonful of flour, one level tablespoonful of sugar, 
one egg, well beaten. Thicken the cream with the flour. 
Put the sugar into the milk, and beat with a dover beater 
while it attains a boiling heat. Then stir in the cream, 
let boil a few minutes, and add the egg, pouring the hot 
liquid over it. 

Egg Gruel. 

One egg yolk and one white, beaten separately, one 
tablespoonful of sugar, one cup of hot milk. Put the 
yolk and sugar into a bowl, add the white, then pour 
on the hot milk, and beat rapidly. Flavor with chocolate 
or whatever desired. 

Cracker or Toast Gruel. 

Two tablespoonfuls of powdered toast or plain crack- 
ers, one-half cup of boiling water, one-half cup of milk, 
one-eighth teaspoonful of salt. Put together, boil up once, 
and serve. A well-beaten egg may be added. May flavor 
with raisins. 

Rice Gruel. 

One tablespoonful of rice, three cups of boiling wa- 
ter. Cook until the rice is soft. Add one tablespoon- 
ful of flour mixed with two tablespoonfuls of water. 



332 HOUSEHOLD SCIENCE. 

Cook ten minutes, then add one cup of milk, make hot, salt 
to taste, and serve. 

Rice and Tapioca Gruel. 

One tablespoonful of rice and one of tapioca to one 
quart of water. Boil until dissolved, strain, season with 
salt, and serve. 

Oatmeal Gruel. 

To a quart of boiling water, add two heaping table- 
spoonfuls of coarse oatmeal, and half a level teaspoonful 
of salt. Set where it will cook, but not boil, and let cook 
one hour or more. When ready to serve, add half as 
much milk or cream (warm) as you can serve of the 
gruel. 

Indian Meal Gruel. 

Two tablespoonfuls of cornmeal, one teaspoonful of 
salt, one quart of boiling water. Have the water boiling, 
mix the cornmeal with a little cold water, stir it into the 
hot water, and let cook three hours. May make with 
milk instead of water, and, when made with water, add 
milk or cream when serving. 

Barley Gruel. 

One level tablespoonful of barley, cover with boiling 
water, and let boil a minute. Drain, and put in one 
quart of boiling water and cook two hours. Strain, sea- 
son, and serve. 

Arrowroot Gruel. 

Mix one-half a tablespoonful of arrowroot with two 
tablespoonfuls of cold water, and stir it into one cup of 
milk which is boiling hot in the double boiler. Keep cov- 
ered, and let cook half an hour. Salt to taste and serve. 

Flour Gruel. 

Make same as arrowroot gruel, except use twice the 
quantity of flour that there is of arrowroot in the above 
formula. 



INVALID COOKERY. 335 

Farina Gruel. 

Mix one tablespoon ful of farina with three table- 
spoonfuls of cold water and stir it into one cup of boiling 
water and let cook slowly on the back of range or in a 
double boiler for half an hour, then add one cup of milk, 
and when hot serve. 

Lemon Whey. 

One cup of hot milk, one-half tablespoonful of lemon 
juice, or enough to cause curd to separate. Heat until the 
clear whey is seen, then strain, and add sugar to taste. 
Vinegar Whey. 

Make in the same manner as lemon whey, using vine- 
gar instead of lemon juice. 

Lamb Broth. 

Make as directed on page 263, and see that every par- 
ticle of grease is removed before serving. May use rice, 
cooked in plenty of water, in the broth. 

Chicken Broth. 

Cut up a hen as for stewing, put the bony pieces in 
the bottom of the kettle, and the breast on top. Cover 
with cold water, and cook slowly four or five hours. Pour 
the broth off. Rice may be served with it. See that the 
fat is all removed from the broth. 

Beef Broth. 

Select the round of beef, cut in small pieces, and cook 
two hours, or if there is time, select the shank or shin, 
remove the outer skin, make perfectly clean, and cook 
four or five hours. In any case, simply cover an inch 
deep with cold water, and cook slowly. Remove every 
trace of fat, and salt to taste. 

Beef Tea. 

Prepare lean beef by removing the fat and cutting into 
small pieces. Put a pound of the meat in a jar with a 
cup of cold water, cook, and finish as before directed for 
beef extract. 



334 HOUSEHOLD SCIENCE. 

Beef Powder. 

Use the same kind of meat, and prepare as for tea, but, 
instead of cooking, put to dry at once in cool oven or on 
the range shelf. When dry, pulverize it. 

Cracker or Crust Coffee. 

Toast bread crusts, either white or graham, or toast 
crackers by laying in the oven and allowing them 
to stay until of a rich brown, but do not burn. Then 
break in small pieces into a saucepan, cover with cold 
water, let come to a boil, and strain. Serve the coffee 
either hot or cold. Clear, or with cream or milk as de- 
sired. 

Cereal Tea. 

Brown corn, rice, wheat, or barley same as coffee, and 
pound or grind. To make the drink, use two table- 
spoonfuls of either cereal desired in a cup of cold water, 
let boil five minutes. Serve either hot or cold, with or 
without sugar or cream. 

Sea Moss Jelly. 

One-half cup of moss. Irish moss and Iceland moss 
are both often used for invalids. To prepare either of 
these, wash well, free from objectionable parts, and put 
to soak in cold water. After half an hour, put to cook, 
using the water in which it was soaked, and enough 
more to make three cups of boiling water, or milk may be 
used. Cook until the moss is mostly dissolved, and a 
little of the liquid cooled will thicken like jelly. Serve 
with lemon juice or cream to relieve the taste a little and 
make more palatable. 

Raw Beef Sandwiches. 

Use round beef steak, scraped with a knife, seasoned 
or not, as desired. Spread between very thin slices of 
stale bread. 

Wild Birds. 

Cook in any manner desired. Usually only the breasts 
are used, as there is little meat on the other parts. 



INVALID COOKERY. 335 

Beef Toast. 

Toast bread as for milk toast, lay on a warm plate, and 
moisten with beef broth or beef juice seasoned with 
salt. 

Milk Toast. 

Toast carefully slices of bread cut one-half inch thick. 
Lay on a warm plate, and turn over it the hot whole milk, 
seasoned with a little salt. Or make a white sauce of 
one and one-half teaspoonfuls of flour, one teaspoonful of 
butter, and one-half cup of milk, and pour this over the 
toast instead of milk. 

Water Toast. 

Toast bread as for milk toast, and moisten with 
boiling water, seasoned with a little butter and salt. 

Beef Custard. 

Beat an egg until light, pour over it one cup of beef 
broth, salt to taste, stir well, turn into a buttered mold, 
set in a pan of water, and bake slowly. When a knife 
thrust into the center comes out clear, the custard is 
done. Serve hot or cold. 

Arrowroot Custard. 

One cup milk, one egg, one generous tablespoonful of 
sugar, one-fourth teaspoonful of arrowroot. Mix the 
arrowroot with one tablespoonful of cold milk. Put the 
remainder of the milk on the stove; when it boils, add 
the arrowroot and cook five minutes, then pour into the 
beaten egg and sugar and cook very little. Flavor with 
a teaspoonful of chocolate in a tablespoonful of hot milk, 
or use a few drops of extract of lemon. If the arrow- 
root is left out, use two eggs. 

References: Hand Book of Invalid Cookery — Boland — pp. 
70-101, 254-269: Monrad's New Edition of Pasteurization and 
Milk Preservation; The Art of Cookery for Invalids, by Flor- 
ence B. Jack. 



CHAPTER XXVII. 

DESSERTS. 

Gelatine Dishes. 

In order to be successful in making gelatine desserts, 
one must remember several things : Use no more gela- 
tine than is absolutely necessary to have the mass keep its 
form when molded. Less gelatine is necessary in winter 
than in summer. Always wet a mold in cold water be- 
fore putting gelatine to cool. Be careful about moving 
the mold before the gelatine is set, as rough treatment 
may cause the gelatine to split when turned out. When 
fruit is used in a mold, cool a little gelatine in the mold 
first, and place the fruit in such position as to give the 
best effect when the dessert is turned out. Have the dish 
on which it is to be served well chilled. If the gelatine 
sticks to the mold, lay a cloth wrung from warm water 
all over it a few minutes, but do not warm the outside 
enough to cause the gelatine to run. In making a des- 
sert, avoid setting the gelatine in too warm a place while 
soaking. Such treatment may cause it to taste gluey. 

Gelatine may be dissolved by pouring hot water over 
it after it is soaked, or by simply setting the dish contain- 
ing the soaked gelatine in a dish of hot water and stir- 
ring a few minutes. The latter method facilitates cooling, 
as the liquid can then be added cold. 

Clearing with egg will have the same effect as setting 
in too warm a place while soaking. Gelatines, at the 
present time, are so manufactured that they are clear and 
sparkling without special treatment at home. Use phos- 
phated gelatines with fruit, and unphosphated with milk 
desserts. 



DESSERTS. 337 

Many desserts can.be made from fruit juices by com- 
bining them with gelatine. This makes a light and very 
palatable dessert. The following illustrates the making 
of gelatine desserts by the use of fruit. 

Strawberry Jelly. 

To one-third of a box of phosphated gelatine add one 
cup of cold water, and let soak one hour, then set the 
vessel containing it in hot water and let stand, stirring un- 
til it melts. Add granulated sugar (one and one-half 
cups). When the sugar is melted, strain, and add one 
cup of strawberry juice, and the juice of one lemon. Rinse 
a porcelain or granite ware dish with cold water, turn the 
mixture into it, and set in ice water to harden. Lemon 
juice may be omitted with phosphated gelatine, but the 
products are better with it. 

Strawberries in Jelly. 

Prepare a mixture as for strawberry jelly. Pack fine 
large berries in the mold, and when the gelatine is as 
thick as honey, pour it over them, and set away to stif- 
fen. 

Strawberry Pudding. 

Prepare a mixture same as for strawberry jelly. When 
the jelly begins to stiffen, whip until perfectly light and 
white, then add the whites of three eggs beaten to a stiff 
froth. Into the eggs put a pinch of salt and three table- 
spoonfuls of granulated sugar. 

Strawberry Cream. 

After adding the whites of the eggs in making the 
pudding, whip into the mixture two cups of whipped 
cream, and two tablespoonfuls of granulated sugar. 

Peach Jelly. 

Gelatine same as for strawberry jelly, one cup of peach 
juice, one cup of cold water, one tablespoonful of caramel, 



338 HOUSEHOLD SCIENCE. 

one teaspoonful of almond extract. Sweeten to taste. 
Put together same as lemon jelly, and set away to cool. 

Peaches in Jelly. 

Prepare gelatine same as for strawberry jelly. Select 
perfectly ripe freestone peaches, pare, and stone. Lay in 
the mold with the split side up. When the gelatine is as 
thick as honey, pour it over them, and set away to harden. 
Serve with whipped cream. 

Raspberries in Jelly. 

Put large, nice raspberries in the mold, and pour over 
them a gelatine (made with a phosphate gelatine, same as 
for strawberry jelly, except use raspberry juice), when 
it is of the consistency of honey, let cool, and serve with 
cream. 

Coffee Jelly. 

Use one cup of coffee of the same strength as for 
drinking, sweetened to taste, and one level teaspoonful 
of granulated, unphosphated gelatine, soaked in one- 
fourth cup of cold water for half an hour. Pour the 
hot coffee over it, strain, put to cool, and serve with 
whipped cream. 

Coffee Cream. 

When the coffee jelly thickens, beat well, then beat into 
it one-third of a cup of whipped cream, put into molds, 
let harden, and serve. 

Lemon Jelly — For Home Work. 

Grate the yellow rind of one lemon, and steep ten 
minutes in one cup of boiling water. Soak one-fourth of 
a box of phosphated gelatine in one-half a cup of cold 
water until soft, then strain the cup of hot water from 
the grated rind on the gelatine (fill from the teakettle to 
make one cup if the water has evaporated), add one- 
fourth cup of lemon juice, and one-half a cup of sugar. 
Stir until gelatine and sugar are dissolved, and strain. 



DESSERTS. 339 

Pour into a dish wet in cold water, and put to cool in a 
cold place, but do not allow to freeze. 

Lemon Jelly — For Class Work. 

One level teaspoonful of gelatine (soaked in one table- 
spoonful of cold water), one-fourth cup of hot water, two 
level tablespoonfuls of sugar, one tablespoonful of lemon 
juice and a few drops of lemon extract. Dissolve the 
gelatine and the sugar in the hot water. Add the lemon 
juice. Strain into mold, and set in a cold place to harden. 
May dissolve the gelatine by setting the cup containing it 
in hot water and stirring, and add the water cold. It will 
thus harden much more quickly. 

Orange Jelly. 

Soak one-fourth of a box of gelatine in one-fourth 
of a cup of cold water until soft. Grate the yellow rind 
of one orange and steep it ten minutes in one-half cup of 
hot water (pour in water, if it has evaporated, until there 
is half a cup) and strain it over the softened gelatine. 
Add one-half a cup of granulated sugar, and stir until 
dissolved, then pour into it the juice of half a lemon and 
one cup of orange juice, and strain through a cloth. Put 
to cool on ice, but do not allow to freeze. Serve on cold 
plates. May use one teaspoonful of orange or lemon ex- 
tract instead of the grated peel. In that case use cold in- 
stead of hot water in making the gelatine, and dissolve by 
setting soaked gelatine in hot water and stirring. 

Orange Jelly — Class Work. 

One full teaspoonful of gelatine (phosphate), two 
tablespoonfuls of water, three tablespoonfuls of orange 
juice, one teaspoonful of lemon juice, one and one-half 
teaspoonfuls of sugar, one-fourth cup hot water. Make 
same as lemon jelly. 

Orange Cream. 

Make same as orange jelly, and put to cool. When 
it has cooled until it is thick as honey, beat with dover 



340 HOUSEHOLD SCIENCE. 

beater until white, then fold in one-third as much 
sweetened whipped cream as there is of the other. 

Grape Cream. 

Make same as orange cream, except use grape juice in- 
stead of orange juice, and use no flavoring. 

Amber Jelly — Class Work. 

One teaspoonful of gelatine soaked in one-fourth cup of 
cold water. When gelatine is soft, set in hot water and 
stir until dissolved, add one-fourth cup of cold water, 
and one-half teaspoonful of sugar, three tablespoonfuls of 
caramel, and two drops of almond extract. Strain, turn 
into molds, and set away to cool. 

Apple Jelly. 

One teaspoonful of gelatine soaked in two tablespoon- 
fuls of cold water, one-half cup of water in which the ap- 
ples were cooked, two tablespoonfuls of caramel and one 
and one-half teaspoonfuls of sugar. When gelatine is 
soft set the cup in hot water and stir until gelatine is dis- 
solved, then add the remaining water and apple juice. 
Lay the nicely cooked eighths of the apples in the mold 
and pour over them part of the liquid, let cool to the con- 
sistency of honey, put in more apples, more liquid, and 
so on until all is used, set away in a cold place to stiffen. 
Serve with or without whipped cream. 

Prunes in Jelly — Class Work. 

One level teaspoonful of gelatine, one tablespoonful of 
liquid from prunes, one tablespoonful of sugar, one-fourth 
cup of water, one teaspoonful of lemon juice, one table- 
spoonful of cold water, two stoned prunes. Make same 
as apple jelly, put the prunes in the bottom of the mold, 
turn the mixture over them. Use no flavoring, of course. 

Snow Pudding. 

One-fourth of a box of gelatine soaked in one-half a 
cup of cold water until soft. One-fourth of a cup of 
lemon juice, or a little less than that, if phosphated gela- 
time is used. Pour the lemon juice and the gelatine (when 



DESSERTS. 341 

dissolved) together, and pour on enough water to make a 
pint. Add one-half cup of sugar, and strain. Set in ice 
water, and when it is thick as honey beat with the dover 
egg beater until perfectly white. Beat in one teaspoonful 
of lemon extract. Beat the whites of three eggs very light, 
and add one-half cup of sugar. Fold the whites into the 
beaten mixture. Let harden, and serve on cold plates. 

Sauce for Snow Pudding. 

The yolks of three eggs, beaten very light. Add to 
the yolks one level tablespoonful of sugar. Pour over 
this three-fourths of a cup of hot milk, pouring slowly, 
and stirring rapidly to prevent lumping. Cook slowly 
until it coats the spoon. Remove from the fire at once, 
and flavor with one-fourth of a teaspoonful of lemon ex- 
tract. Serve cold. 

Orange Pudding. 

Make same as snow pudding, using orange instead of 
lemon juice, and flavor with orange extract. 

Grape Pudding. 

Make same as snow pudding, except use grape instead 
of lemon juice. Needs no flavoring. 

Charlotte Russe. 

Soak one and one-half tablespoonfuls of unphosphated 
gelatine in four tablespoonfuls of cold water. Pour one 
pint of boiling milk on three beaten egg yolks, return to 
the stove, and cook until you do not taste raw egg. Add 
one and one-half tablespoonfuls of gelatine, one teaspoon- 
ful of vanilla or lemon, beat thoroughly. Fold in three- 
fourths of a cup or more of whipped cream, and three egg 
whites, beaten stiff, with four tablespoonfuls of sugar 
added to them. Pour into a mold lined with sponge cake 
or lady fingers. 

Chocolate Cream. 

Make chocolate cream in the same way, except add 
melted chocolate to the mixture while hot, and use two 
eggs instead of three. 



342 HOUSEHOLD SCIENCE. 

Ginger Cream — For Home Work. 

Make ginger cream in the same way as charlotte 
russe, using four tablespoonfuls of chopped ginger in- 
stead of vanilla. 

Ginger Cream — For Class Work. 

One heaping tablespoonful of ginger, cut fine, one des- 
sert spoon of syrup of the preserved ginger, one egg 
yolk, well beaten, two-thirds of a cup of cream. Cook 
cream, ginger, and well-beaten egg together, then strain 
on the gelatine. Set in ice water, and, when cool, beat 
until white. Use two teaspoonfuls of unphosphated gela- 
tine, and soak in two tablespoonfuls of cold water until 
soft. 

A Delicate Dessert. 

Two teaspoonfuls of unphosphated granulated gelatine 
soaked in two tablespoonfuls of cold water, one teaspoon- 
ful flour, one teaspoonful water, one cup milk. Cook the 
water, flour and milk together five minutes, and pour over 
a well-beaten egg yolk. Cook until it coats the spoon. 
When cool, add the soaked gelatine. When very slightly 
stiffened, beat in the well-beaten white of the egg. Flavor 
with vanilla or preserved ginger. Serve with whipped 
cream. 

Milk Charlotte — Class Work. 

One level teaspoonful of unphosphated gelatine, one ta- 
blespoonful of cold milk, three tablespoonfuls of hot milk, 
two level tablespoonfuls of sugar, one-half saltspoonful of 
flavoring (one saltspoonful equals one-eighth of a tea- 
spoonful), one cup of whipped cream, or one-half a cup of 
beaten white of egg and one-half a cup of cream. Soak 
the gelatine in the cold milk until soft, then pour the hot 
milk over it, stir until dissolved, and strain. Add the 
sugar and the flavoring. Let cool until thick as honey, 
then beat until white, and add the whipped cream, or 
the beaten egg white. 



DESSERTS. 343 

Milk Charlotte— Home Eule. 

For home work double the Class Rule. 

Macedoine Gelatine Pudding. 

Phosphated gelatine, one-half box (more in summer) ; 
water, three-cups ; oranges, two ; bananas, three ; lemons, 
two ; dates, ten ; walnuts, fifteen ; sugar, two cups. Soak 
the gelatine in one cup of cold water until soft. Pour a 
pint of boiling water over it, and stir, add the juice of the 
lemons, and strain. Wet a mold, and pour in gelatine to 
cover the bottom about half an inch thick. When it 
thickens, slice in a little of each kind of fruit, and pour 
some gelatine over it. When the gelatine is thick, put on 
the chopped nuts and dates, and pour some of the 
remaining gelatine over it, and let harden. Then slice 
on the remainder of the fruit, and pour on the rest of 
the gelatine. Set away to harden. Serve with whipped 
cream. 

PUDDINGS AND PUDDING SAUCES. 

Caramel Souffle — For Class Work. 

One level teaspoonful of cornstarch, one-fourth cup 
of water. Cook together until thickened. Separately beat 
the yolk and white of an egg until light, and add the 
cooked mixture to the yolk a spoonful at a time. Then 
fold in the beaten white, put into buttered timbale molds, 
and bake in a very slow oven. Flavor with three drops 
of vanilla, one tablespoonful of caramel, and a little salt. 
Serve with caramel cream. The cornstarch and water 
take the place of one egg white. When the souffle is re- 
moved from the oven, sprinkle thickly with powdered 
sugar, and bar across the top with a hot poker. Serve 
immediately. 

Caramel Souffle— Home Rule. 

Caramel souffle for home work, use three times the 
amount given for Class Work. 

References: U. S. Dept. Agr., Office Exp. Stations Bul- 
letin No. 21, p. 13; Parloa's Kitchen Companion, pp. 702-705; 



344 HOUSEHOLD SCIENCE. 

Boiled Custard — For Home Work. 

One cup of boiling milk, yolks of two eggs, beaten 
very light, or one whole egg. Pour hot milk over the 
beaten egg, a little at a time, beating constantly. Add 
two tablespoonfuls of sugar to yolks, and flavor to taste. 
Cook until it will coat the spoon with a thin film when 
dipped into it, but be careful not to cause it to curdle. 
If making in large quantities, pour into a dish when done, 
and set in cold water, and stir while it cools. If the whites 
and yolks are beaten separately, pour the hot custard over 
the beaten whites, which will cook them enough. 

Boiled Custard — For Class Work. 

One-half cup of milk, one egg, one tablespoonful of 
sugar. Proceed as above. May use two teaspoonfuls of 
flour with it. In that case, cook the flour and milk, and 
pour over the egg. 

Caramel Custard. 

Make same as above, except use four tablespoonfuls of 
caramel instead of two of sugar. 

Baked Custard. 

One teaspoonful lemon extract, three eggs, one pint 
milk, three tablespoonfuls of sugar, one-eighth teaspoon- 
ful of salt. Beat the eggs slightly, mix with the other in- 
gredients and set the vessel containing the custard in a 
pan of water to cook and when set and firm remove from 
oven. 

Baked Custard — For Class Work. 

One cup of milk, one egg, one and one-half tablespoon- 
fuls of sugar, a dust of salt. 

Beat the eggs just enough to have them mix with the 
milk. Stir the sugar into the mixture. Flavor to taste 
with nutmeg or lemon extract. Set the dish containing the 
custard in water to bake. Test by inserting a knife to see 
whether it comes out clean. It should be baked just 
enough to stand. Too much baking makes it watery. 



DESSERTS. 345 

Yolk Custard. 

Four egg yolks, one cup of water, one heaping (two 
level) tablespoonful of cornstarch, two tablespoonfuls of 
sugar, one teaspoonful of salt. Flavor with vanilla. Beat 
the yolks light, add the sugar, cornstarch, and salt, and 
mix together. Then add the water and flavoring. Turn 
into a pudding dish, and bake slowly in a moderate oven. 

Yolk Custard— Class Rule. 

One large egg yolk, one tablespoonful of flour, one-half 
cup of water, one tablespoonful of sugar. Make and bake 
same as directed in home rule. 
Caramel Pudding-. 

Use four eggs to a pint of milk, and make same as 
above. Coat the sides of the dish with thick caramel, 
pour the custard in, and bake gently. Turn out, and al- 
low the caramel to run over the pudding as a sauce. 
Caramel Pudding with. Water. 

Four egg yolks, or two whole eggs, one cup of water, 
one heaping or two level tablespoonfuls of cornstarch. 
Sugar and salt to taste. Cook cornstarch and water to- 
gether, and, when cooled a little, mix with the beaten eggs. 
Coat the sides of the dish with caramel, pour the custard 
in, and bake slowly. Turn out and serve, allowing the 
caramel to run over the pudding as a sauce. 
Cornstarch Pudding — For Home Work. 

Use one quart of milk, four rounding or eight level ta- 
blespoonfuls of cornstarch, a pinch of salt, and one-half a 
cup of sugar. Heat the milk to boiling point, and stir in 
the sugar, salt, and cornstarch, mixed together. When 
cooked sufficiently, turn over the beaten whites of two 
eggs, and stir in. To make it yellow, use the yolks of the 
eggs. To make it pink, use the whites of the eggs and 
some strawberry juice. Serve cold with or without cream. 
Cornstarch Pudding -Class Work. 

One cup of milk, two level tablespoonfuls of cornstarch, 
one level tablespoonful of sugar, a pinch of salt, four 



346 HOUSEHOLD SCIENCE. 

drops of flavoring, one egg yolk, or one egg white, if the 
white pudding is desired. Cook the milk, cornstarch and 
sugar together, and pour over the beaten egg while still 
hot. 

Rennet Pudding. 

One pint of sweet milk (whole), one level tablespoon- 
ful of sugar, one mustard spoon or one-fourth of a tea- 
spoonful of liquid rennet, flavoring, two drops. Heat 
milk to 90 F., then add the rennet, flavoring and sugar, 
Set in warm water until it begins to stiffen, then in a cool 
place. If left too long in the warm water, the curd and 
whey will tend to separate when turned on the dish to 
serve. For this reason it is better to give it constant at- 
tention until it is ready to set away. 

Rice Pudding — For Home Work. 

Rice, one measure; milk, nine measures; sugar, three- 
fourths of a measure; salt, one-fourth of a teaspoonful. 
Put all together in a baking dish, and bake slowly until 
it is of a rich, creamy consistency, or, better, let stand on 
the back of the stove or range, and slowly evaporate the 
milk. Stir the scum under as it forms. 

Rice Pudding — For Class Work. 

Rice, one tablespoonful, sugar three teaspoonfuls, 
speck of salt, milk, a generous three-fourths of a cup. 

Snow Pudding. 

Take one measure of rice to three of liquid, and cook 
in the usual way. Turn into a pudding dish, and pour 
over the top the following cream : White of one large 
or two small eggs, beaten stiff, two tablespoonfuls of 
powdered sugar, and one teaspoonful of lemon essence, 
and last, six teaspoonfuls of sweet cream. Mix the sugar 
and essence carefully with the beaten whites, and spread 
over the rice. Set in the oven until the meringue har- 
dens, then remove from oven, and dot over top with lumps 
of jelly. Serve either hot or cold. 



DESSERTS. 347 

Meringued Rice. 

Make a plain rice pudding. When done cover with a 
thick meringue made as on page 362. When browned 
slightly, put bits of bright jelly over the top. 

Apple Tapioca Pudding. 

Soak over night, in three cups of water, one-half cup 
of tapioca. Cook one hour. Pour this over one quart 
of tart apples, pared and cored, add one-half cup of 
sugar, one tablespoonful of lemon juice, and one-half 
teaspoonful of salt. Cook until apples are tender. Serve 
hot or cold. Put a teaspoonful of currant jelly on top 
of each apple just before serving. 

Tapioca Cream. 

Soak tapioca in cold water until soft, then take equal 
measures of tapioca and milk. Use three eggs to one pint 
of the mixture, and three tablespoonfuls of sugar. Cook 
tapioca and milk until the tapioca is clear. Beat the eggs 
well, and stir in, let cook a few minutes, and serve hot or 
cold. Flake tapioca may be used instead of pearl 
tapioca. 

Tapioca Snow Pudding. 

One egg white, beaten stiff, with four level tablespoon- 
fuls of sugar added when first beginning to beat, one 
cup of sweet milk, one tablespoonful of tapioca, one- 
quarter teaspoonful of salt. Soak the tapioca in enough 
water to cover it. When the water is absorbed, add the 
milk and cook in a double boiler until the tapioca is trans- 
parent, then pour the tapioca over the beaten egg white, 
and fold together. Flavor to suit the taste, and serve 
either cold or warm. 

Strawberry Tapioca Pudding. 

Soak one cup of pearl tapioca in three cups of cold 
water over night, or several hours. Add half a teaspoon- 
ful of salt, and set in water to cook, or put in double 
boiler. When it is boiling hot, let cook until the tapioca 
is transparent. Have the strawberries washed, hulled, 



348 HOUSEHOLD SCIENCE. 

and sugared. When the tapioca is cooked, add three- 
fourths of a cup of sugar to the juice that has drained 
from the berries, and mix with the tapioca. Add a little 
butter, and when the mixture has cooled sufficiently not 
to cook the berries, put them in also. Use one pint of 
hulled strawberries for the above amount. 

Peach Tapioca Pudding. 

Make in the same way as apple tapioca pudding, ex- 
cept use peaches for fruit. Any of the following com- 
binations of fruits may be used in tapioca puddings, in 
gelatine desserts, or in frappes, sherbiets, and water 
ices: (i) Strawberries, raspberries, and cherries; (2) 
red raspberries and currants; (3) grape, pineapple, 
orange, and lemon juice; (4) lemon juice, orange, and 
banana; (5) pears, oranges, and lemon juice; (6) straw- 
berries and lemon juice; (7) pineapple, apple, and lemon 
juice; (8) bananas, grapes, lemon juice, and oranges 
molded in jelly, and garnished with grapes, limes, or apri- 
cots, make a pleasing dessert; (9) pineapple and orange; 
(10) pear, cherry, lemon and strawberry; (11) bananas, 
lemon juice, and strawberries; (12) pear, cherry, 
orange, and pineapple; (13) pineapple, grape, and 
orange; (14) raspberry, currant and banana; (15) cur- 
rant, pear, cherry, and strawberry; (16) pear, cherry, 
red raspberry and strawberry; (17) pineapple, pear, and 
currant; (18) cherry, orange, pear, and a trace of pine- 
apple; (19) peaches, red raspberries, bananas, and 
lemons; (20) banana and lemon juice; (21) black rasp- 
berry and currant; (22) white grapes, lemon, and pine- 
apple; (23) red raspberries, red currants, red cherries, 
and white currants; (24) red raspberries and cranberries; 
(25) apples, pinapple, oranges, and lemon juice. 

Fig Pudding — For Home Work. 

Flour, three cups; suet, one cup; figs, one cup (chop- 
ped) ; sour milk, one cup; soda, one-half teaspoonful ; salt, 
one teaspoonful ; sorghum molasses, one cup ; eggs, 



DESSERTS. 349 

two, well beaten ; cloves, one-fourth teaspoonful 
(ground) ; nutmeg, one-fourth teaspoonful (grated) ; cin- 
namon, two teaspoonfuls ; ginger, two teaspoonfuls. Mix 
the suet, flour, spices, figs, and salt well, then put in the 
eggs, molasses, sour milk, and soda, and mix well. Cook 
in a double boiler, or better steam in a brown-bread mold 
for three hours. Serve with hard sauce flavored with nut- 
meg, ginger, and lemon peel, or with liquid sauce flavored 
with vanilla and ginger. Use one-half teaspoonful of 
lemon peel and one-fourth teaspoonful each of nutmeg and 
ginger. Or use one-fourth teaspoonful of ginger and one 
teaspoonful of vanilla in flavoring the sauce. 

Fig Pudding — For Class Work. 

One cup flour, one-third cup of suet, one-third cup 
figs, one-third cup milk, one teaspoonful baking powder, 
one-third teaspoonful salt, cloves, nutmeg and ginger 
mixed, one-third cup molasses, one small egg. Steam one- 
half hour. 

Nunn's Puffs. 

Seven-eighths cup of bread flour, one cup of water, one- 
fourth cup of butter, one-fourth teaspoonful of salt, four 
eggs. Boil the water, salt, and butter. Put into this the 
whole quantity of flour, and stir, cook well. Cool a lit- 
tle, and stir in the eggs one at a time, as in cream puffs. 
Stir five minutes after adding each egg. Fry by tea- 
spoonfuls fifteen minutes in moderately hot fat. Dust 
with powdered sugar, and serve as any fritter. 

Cream Puffs No. 1. 

One cup of boiling water, one cup of flour (heaping), 
one-half teaspoonful of salt, two whole eggs, and whites 
of three more, one-fourth cup butter. Boil the water, 
salt, and butter. When boiling, add the dry flour, and stir 
well for five minutes. When cool, add the eggs, one at 
a time, thoroughly incorporating each before- adding an- 
other. When all are in, drop the batter by the spoonful 
on a buttered tin. Bake from twentv to thirtv minutes. 



350 HOUSEHOLD SCIENCE. 

They should be a delicate brown all over. Do not open 
the oven door for twenty minutes after putting them in. 

Cream Puffs No. 2. 

Three- fourths of a cup of flour (Pillsbury's Best), or 
equally strong bread flour, one-half of a cup of water, one 
whole egg, whites of two eggs, two tablespoonfuls of 
melted butter. Make same as No. i. 

Filling for Cream Puffs— Class Rule- 

One-half cup of milk, one level tablespoonful of corn- 
starch, two tablespoonfuls of cream, one-half teaspoon- 
ful of flavoring, three level tablespoonfuls of sugar, one- 
half of an egg white. Heat the milk to boiling point, and 
stir in the sugar and cornstarch mixed together. When 
cooked, add the cream, the egg white, and the flavoring. 
Two tablespoonfuls of flour may be used in place of the 
cornstarch. 

Filling for Cream Puffs — Home Rule. 

One cup of milk, two level tablespoonfuls of cornstarch, 
four level tablespoonfuls of cream, six level tablespoonfuls 
of sugar, one teaspoonful of flavoring, one egg white. 
Make same as directed above. 

Apple Pudding. 

Butter the dish, put in a dust of sugar, and cover the 
bottom with tart apples, pared, cored, and quartered. Put 
over them a shake of salt, then crusts of bread which have 
been cut thin and soaked in water. Cover the apples out 
of sight, then put on another layer of apples, and cover 
the top with crumbs, prepared by using one teaspoonful 
of melted butter to every two tablespoonfuls of bread 
crumbs. Cook covered one-half hour, then remove the 
cover, and brown. Serve with a hard sauce or with cara- 
mel sauce. 

Brown Betty. 

Butter the baking dish, pare, core and quarter tart ap- 
ples, put in the dish, and sprinkle with sugar. Then put 



DESSERTS. 351 

on buttered crumbs, sprinkle a little sugar over them, and 
bake. Serve hot with a liquid sauce, cream, or caramel 
sauce (page 355). 

Apple Snow. 

Three large, tart apples. Three egg whites, one-half 
cup of granulated sugar. Have the eggs and apples cold. 
Put the egg whites into a bowl, put in three tablespoonfuls 
of sugar, beat a little with a spoon or egg beater, put in 
more sugar, beat again, and so on until all of the sugar 
is in, then beat until the mixture will stand in points when 
the beater is lifted from it. Core the apples, and grate 
into the mixture, grating only a portion at one time, then 
beating in with the mixture. Flavor with almond extract, 
pile in a glass dish, and set on ice until needed. Do not 
make the snow long before using, as the apple will dis- 
color. This amount will serve seven or eight people. 
Serve with or without whipped cream. 

Baked Apple Pudding. 

Two tablespoonfuls of butter, one-half cup of flour, one- 
quarter teaspoonful of salt, one-half teaspoonful of bak- 
ing powder (or use sour milk and one-eighth teaspoonful 
of soda), one very small egg, one-fourth cup of milk. 
Beat the yolk of the egg light and add the salt, the milk, 
and part of the flour. Beat up well, then add the melted 
butter. Beat this in, then add remainder of flour. 
Whether baking powder or soda is used, put it in part of 
the flour, and put in at the last, just before folding in 
the well-beaten egg white. Put the batter in buttered 
muffin tins, and on the top of each lay a ring of apple 
(apples pared, cored, and cut in rings one-fourth inch 
thick) dipped in sugar. Bake in oven same as for muf- 
fins. Serve with a lemon sauce. 

Dried Apple Pudding. 

Make a batter same as for baked apple pudding, except 
use one-fourth cup of the water in which the apples have 
soaked over night, instead of milk. Use the dried apples 



352 HOUSEHOLD SCIENCE. 

after soaking over night the same as the fresh apples. 
Dried apples are better chopped and mixed with the 
dough. These puddings may be steamed if desired, but 
are better baked. 

Indian Pudding. 

Beat three eggs, and mix with one pint of milk, four 
tablespoonfuls of sugar, and one pint of cornmeal. Add 
one-fourth teaspoonful of ginger, or enough to flavor nice- 
ly. Put into a pan having a large diameter, but shallow. 
Let set on top of stove, and keep mixed until meal swells, 
then put in oven, and bake ten or twelve hours, or until it 
wheys. Serve with cream. 

Suet Pudding — For Home Work. 

Three teaspoonfuls of baking powder, one cup chopped 
suet, one cup raisins, one cup molasses, one cup sweet 
milk, four cups flour, one-eighth teaspoonful soda (for 
the molasses). Steam three hours. Put together same as 
fig pudding. 

Suet Pudding — For Class Work. 

Three teaspoonfuls of baking powder, one cup chopped 
suet, one level teaspoonful of baking powder, one-fourth 
of a teaspoonful of salt, one-fourth cup of milk. Cook 
until done. 

Bread Pudding. 

Slice the bread, and spread daintily with butter. Then 
make a custard, using two eggs to one pint of milk, 
sweeten to taste, dust with salt, then pour the mixture over 
the bread in a baking dish, and bake. Flavor to taste. 

Steamed Fruit Pudding. 

Flour, three cups ; suet, picked fine, one cup ; sour milk, 
one cup ; soda, one-half teaspoonful ; salt, one teaspoonful. 
Mix the flour and the suet well together. Mix the 
soda in a little flour, and add at the last. Put the 
flour and the salt into the milk, and mix all together. Add 
two well-beaten eggs. Put into a pudding mold about an 



DESSERTS. 353 

inch of the batter, then put in a layer of fresh fruit, pared, 
cored, and sweetened, put in more batter, then more fruit, 
etc., until all is used. Do not fill nearer than three inches 
of the top. Serve with creamy sauce, foamy sauce, or 
something of the kind. 

Rhubarb Charlotte. 

Butter a granite ware or earthen pudding pan, and lay 
on the bottom slices of stale bread which have been cut 
very thin,— crusts are just as good.- On this put raw 
pieplant (plenty), and sugar to sweeten it. Then put on 
another layer of bread and pieplant and sugar, and on 
the top put buttered crumbs. Bake in the oven until the 
pieplant is done and the crumbs brown. Serve with 
whipped cream. 

Pieplant Shortcake 

Two cups of flour, one-half teaspoonful of salt, one- 
half teaspoonful of soda, one cup of sour milk, one-third 
cup of fat. Sift the soda with the flour, put in the salt, 
and rub the fat into the flour. Mix with the milk, manipu- 
lating as little as possible. Roll one-half inch thick. 
When baked, cut with a hot knife, and butter the cut sur- 
faces slightly. Spread pieplant on the buttered sur- 
faces, placing one on top of the other. Serve with whipped 
cream. 

Filling. 

Cut tender, fresh pieplant in inch lengths, and put to 
cook with only the water that clings to it when washing. 
When done, sweeten and remove from the stove. 
Maple Sugar Sauce. 

Maple sugar one-fourth of a pound. Melt in one-half 
cup of water, and boil until it threads, then add the juice 
of one lemon. Beat the whites of two eggs to a stiff foam, 
put them and the syrup together the same as a boiled 
frosting, and when they are well mixed add one-half cup 
of cream. 
12 



354 HOUSEHOLD SCIENCE. 

In making pudding sauces or creams where the egg 
white is to be beaten stiff and the cooked mixture poured 
over it, it is better to beat the egg white and sugar to- 
gether, as for a meringue. This gives a smoother sauce. 

Hard Sauce for Hot Puddings. 

One-fourth cup of butter, one-half cup of powdered 
sugar, one-half teaspoonful of lemon or vanilla extract, 
a little nutmeg. Rub the butter until creamy in a warm 
bowl, add the sugar gradually, then the flavoring. Pack 
it smoothly in a small dish, and keep on ice until per- 
fectly hard. 

Lemon Sauce. 

Sugar, two measures; water, one measure; lemon juice 
(one lemon to one quart). Flavor with lemon peel. If 
flour is used to thicken, take two tablespoonfuls of flour 
and one of butter to one cup of liquid. If cornstarch or 
arrowroot is used, take one-half as much as of flour. 

Foamy Sauce. 

One-half cup butter, one cup powdered sugar, one tea- 
spoonful of vanilla, two teaspoonfuls fruit juice or syrup, 
one-quarter cup boiling water, white of egg, beaten to a 
foam. Cream the butter, add the sugar, vanilla, and fruit 
juice. Just before serving add the boiling water, stir 
well, then add the egg white and beat until foamy. 

Cream Sauce. 

One-fourth cup of butter, one-half cup of powdered 
sugar, sifted, two tablespoonfuls of lemon juice and a lit- 
tle nutmeg, two tablespoonfuls of sweet cream. Cream 
the butter, add the sugar slowly, then the lemon juice and 
the cream. Beat well, and just before serving place the 
bowl over hot water, and stir well until smooth and creamy, 
but' do not melt the butter. When the lemon juice and the 
cream are added, the sauce has a curdled appearance. 
This is removed by thorough beating, and by heating just 
enough to blend the materials smoothly. 



DESSERTS. 355 

Caramel Cream. 

One teaspoonful of flour, one teaspoonful of water. 
Mix together, and add one cup of sweet milk. Simmer 
slowly five minutes. Pour this over the well-heaten yolk 
of a small egg, and cook until it coats the spoon. Add 
four tablespoonfuls of strong - caramel. Pour over the 
well-beaten white of the egg, to which one teaspoonful of 
sugar was added when first beginning to beat the egg. 
Serve with apple pudding. 

Caramel Sauce. 

Hot water, one pint ; sugar, one cup ; cornstarch, one 
tablespoonful, or flour, two tablespoonfuls. Put the sugar 
and about half a cup of water in a saucepan on the range. 
When it begins to brown, put where it will cook more 
slowly. When as brown as desired, add enough hot water 
to make the pint. Put in another vessel, add the flour 
mixed with a little cold water, and cook until it thickens. 
Do not stir while the sugar is browning, or it will grain. 
Serve with brown betty and steamed fruit puddings. 

Sauce for Rich Pudding. 

One egg, two tablespoonfuls of butter, beaten to a 
cream, two tablespoonfuls of water, one-third of a cup of 
granulated sugar. Cook sugar and water to the boiling 
point, and pour over the beaten yolk, stir in butter, and 
whip white into it. Flavor with one-half teaspoonful of 
vanilla. 

Vinegar Sauce. 

One cup brown sugar (maple, best), butter the size of 
an egg, one tablespoonful flour, a pinch of salt. Stir to- 
gether, and pour over them a cup of boiling water. Let 
boil, and add one tablespoonful of vinegar, and flavor with 
lemon or vanilla, two teaspoonfuls. 



356 HOUSEHOLD SCIENCE. 

Mock Cream. 

One teaspoonful flour, one-half teaspoonful butter. 
Cook together until well mixed. Add one cup of sweet 
milk, and let simmer five minutes. Pour over the well- 
beaten yolk of a small egg. Put again into the saucepan, 
and cook until it coats the spoon. Remove from the fire, 
and when cooled a little, pour over the well-beaten white, 
to which one tablespoonful of sugar has been added. Add 
a dash of salt, and flavor with vanilla. Mock cream may 
be used with apple dumplings. The flavor may be varied 
by using two tablespoonfuls of caramel. 

Sauce for Plain Pudding. 

Butter, one-fourth cup ; sugar, one cup ; water, one- 
fourth cup; flour, enough to thicken (one teaspoonful). 
Mix flour with a little of the sugar. Cream remainder of 
the butter and sugar. Pour hot water over the flour and 
cook. Flavor with lemon and nutmeg. Beat the cream- 
ed butter into it. 



PASTRY. 

Pastry may be made with lard, cream, cottolene, suet, 
drippings, butter, cottosuet (a mixture of cottonseed oil 
and suet), chicken fat, or mutton fat, but butter is best, 
because it has the most pleasant flavor. 

For plain paste, use as much water as shortening. To 
make a rather rich plain paste, use half as much water as 
shortening. In all cases cut the butter or fat into the 
flour, and then add the water. The less water used after 
the particles can be made to adhere the better, if you wish 
a brittle crust. Always have the water cold as possible. 
Use plenty of extra flour to prevent sticking, if necessary. 
Put together quickly, and handle as little as possible, be- 
cause handling makes the dough tough. To roll di- 
rectly from you is considered better than back and forth. 



DESSERTS. 357 

Make upper crust first, and put to chill while you roll the 
under crust. Make the lower crust a little thicker than 
you make the upper one, flour well, and set in a cool place 
while the filling- is prepared. 

A lemon or custard pie should be baked in a deep pan. 
If you must use a shallow tin, cut the crust very large, 
and make stand up by pinching into place. In making 
such one-crusted pies as are better baked and filled after- 
wards, as cream pies, pierce the crust with a fork or pastry 
jagger before putting into the oven. 

The trimmings of piecrust can be used for cheese 
straws, tarts, or rissoles. 

In plum, cherry, and peach pies, crack a few pits and 
cook in the pie with the fruit for flavor. 

Do not cut fruit too small, as it loses much of its flavor 
on account of the large amount of surface exposed. Al- 
ways mix an acid with an insipid fruit, as currants with 
huckleberries. In apple pies, allow the natural flavor to 
predominate when apples are at their best, for there is no 
gain in wholesomeness or palability in the use of spices. 
Lay the fruit well up about the edges, and bind the crusts 
together by wetting with egg white or cold water, and 
pressing well before putting to bake. When the juices 
exude in cooking, a little dry flour mixed with the sweet- 
ening will prevent it. In using juicy fruits, it is always 
better to bake the crusts with a paper or linen filling, and 
cook the filling while the crusts bake, and put together 
hot as can be handled, but if one prefers to cook the fruit 
in the pie, the juice can be confined by using a strip of 
white muslin wet and applied around the edge of the pie 
before putting it into the oven. Remove the cloth as soon 
as the pie comes from the oven. Exuding juices may be 
prevented also by making a little paper funnel, and plac- 
ing it in a perforation in the crust of the raw pie to allow 
the steam to escape. To prevent the lower piecrust soak- 
ing, paint with egg white, or dust with flour before pui • 
ting the fruit into it. 



358 HOUSEHOLD SCIENCE. 

Puff Paste. 

One pound of butter, one pound of flour, two egg 
whites. Scald a large bowl, and chill with ice water. 
Work the butter in the bowl in ice water until soft and 
waxy. Chop one-eighth of the butter in the flour until 
fine, then rub with a spoon. Put the egg whites, un- 
beaten into the flour, and mix with ice water until you 
have a dough just stiff enough to handle easily without 
flour. Work this dough until it blisters, then put the re- 
mainder of the butter in, in a square piece, and fold the 
dough over it, same as piecrust. Then roll a little on 
one side, then as much on the other side, and fold over 
again like a piecrust, and roll not more than seven times, 
nor less than five, and let cool between each rolling fif- 
teen or twenty minutes, but not too much, or it will 
crack and will not puff when baked. Cut with a sharp 
knife or cutter dipped in hot water to prevent the edges 
being pressed together. Let cool after cutting out before 
putting into the oven. Have the oven as hot as you can 
without burning, — have it hottest on the bottom. Protect 
the top at first by covering with white paper. 

There are different ways of mixing. The flour, salt, 
and ice water may be put together, and pounded and 
kneaded until smooth and elastic before putting in the 
butter. The usual way is to put one-third or one-fourth 
of the butter with the ice water, flour and salt, by rubbing 
into the flour, then fold the rest of the butter in the dough. 

Baking Powder Piecrust. 

Baking powder, one-fourth teaspoonful; salt, one- 
eighth teaspoonful ; fat, one-third cup ; flour, one and one- 
quarter cups. Mix dry ingredients with the flour. Rub 
fat into flour. Mix with one-half cup (scant) of cold 
water. Cut in two parts, and roll each piece separately. 

Flaky Piecrust — For Home Work. 

Use six ounces of butter (three- fourths of a cup), and 
one-half pound of flour (two cups) for one pie with two 



DESSERTS. 359 

crusts, and one pie with a single crust. Have all the in- 
gredients and utensils to be used cold as possible. Set 
them on ice for a while before preparing the pastry, then 
place the butter and flour in chopping bowl, and chop 
until the butter is in pieces about the size of a pea. Pour 
in ice water a little at a time, using only enough to make 
the dough stick together. Mix with a fork by pulling 
particles aside as moistened, and add water to dry flour 
each time, put on the molding board, roll three times, 
folding each time with a knife, and turning half round 
each time. 

For simple flaky piecrust, use two cups of flour and one- 
half cup of butter ( in piecrust one-half butter and one- 
half lard may be used if desired). 

Flaky Piecrust — For Class Work. 

Two level tablespoonfuls of fat, one-half cup of flour, 
two level tablespoonfuls of ice water, one saltspoonful of 
salt. Put together as above. 

Custard Pie — For Class Work. 

Put one tablespoonful of beaten egg in a bowl, add to 
this the sugar (one tablespoonful), and the flavoring. Pour 
the milk (one cup) into it, and stir well. Turn the cus- 
tard into the crust and bake in a moderate oven, until a 
knife, if thrust into the center of the pie, comes out clean. 

Custard Pie — Home Work. 

Three eggs, three tablespoonfuls of sugar, one-fourth 
teaspoonful of salt, three and a half cups of sweet milk. 
Flavor with nutmeg. Put together and bake same as 
above. 

Pastry—For One Pie Crust. 

One-half cup of flour, two level tablespoonfuls of fat, 
two tablespoonfuls cold water, one-fourth teaspoonful of 
salt. Rub fat and flour together with a fork or a limber 



360 HOUSEHOLD SCIENCE. 

knife. Add the water a little at a time, pulling the dough 
to one side as the flour is wet, and adding water to dry 
flour each time. Use as little water as will make the 
dough adhere. 

Pastry— With Baking Powder. 

Make same as above, except sift one-fourth teaspoonful 
baking powder with the flour before rubbing fat into it. 

Pastry— For Class Work. 

One-fourth cup of flour, one saltspoonful of baking 
powder, one-eighth teaspoonful salt ; one level tablespoon- 
ful fat (if baking powder is used leave out half the fat), 
one tablespoonful cold water. 

Cream Pie — Hot-Water Crust. 

One-half cup of flour, one tablespoonful of lard, one 
tablespoonful of butter, two tablespoonfuls of boiling wa- 
ter. Rub fat and flour together, and mix with boiling 
water. 

Filling for Cream Pie. 

One cup of milk, one level tablespoonful of sugar, one 
small egg yolk, four tablespoonfuls of flour, two table- 
spoonfuls of butter. Heat butter and flour together. 
After they are well mixed, pour on the milk, and cook. 
Pour this over the beaten egg yolk, sweeten, and flavor. 
Pour this into the crust, which is baked. Cover the top- 
with a meringue made from the egg white. 

Apple Custard Pie. 

Make a crust same as for custard pie. For the filling 
cook dried apples as for sauce, letting nearly all of the 
water cook out. Put the apples through a colander or 
sieve, add six tablespoonfuls of sugar and one egg, beat 
all well together, and add a few drops of lemon extract,, 
or a little cinnamon, and a dust of salt. Then stir in one- 



DESSERTS. 361 

cup of sweet milk. Pour into the crust and bake same as 
custard pie. When done, cover with a meringue, or let 
cool, and cover the top with grated cheese. 

Dried Apple Pie. 

Prepare the apples, wash, and soak overnight. Make 
the piecrust, sweeten the apples, and put them in, and 
bake. Cook slowly until the apples are done. 

4 

One-Crust Apple Pie. 

Pare, core and cut the apples into eighths. Put the 
apples in layers, having first buttered the bottom and sides 
of the granite tin in which it is to be baked. Sprinkle 
sugar enough to sweeten the apples, then place the crust, 
and bake. 

Pan Dowdy. 

Make same as one-crust apple pie, except sweeten with 
molasses. 

Gooseberry Pie. 

Remove the stems and the blossom ends from the ber- 
ries. Wash fruit. Mix two tablespoonfuls of flour 
with the sweetening for each pie. Use half as much sugar 
as berries, if the berries are young ; otherwise more. Stir 
the sugar and flour into the berries, fill the pie, and bake. 
Wet the lower crust along the top with cold water, and 
press the upper crust well down, or use one of the devices 
given in the article on pastry. 

Peach Pie. 

Make a lower crust, fill with peanut shells or crushed 
white paper. Put the upper crust on, and bake. Cook 
the peaches until soft, then add the sugar, with two level 
tablespoonfuls of flour, and cook until it thickens. Pour 
into the crust while both it and the peaches are hot. Let 
get cold, and serve with whipped cream. 



362 HOUSEHOLD SCIENCE. 

Lemon Pie (Makes Two Pies). 

Juice and grated rind of two large lemons. One and 
one-half cups of sugar, one scant tablespoonful butter, 
three cups boiling water. With the sugar mix six level ta- 
blespoonfuls of cornstarch ; put the water, lemon rind, and 
salt with these and boil until stiff and clear. Pour this 
over the beaten egg yolk, stirring constantly and pouring 
slowly. Return to the fire and cook the egg, stir in the 
lemon juice and turn into the crust. Use the whites of 
the eggs for a meringue. 

Lemon Pie— Class Eule. 

Juice and grated rind of one-half a large lemon, one- 
fourth of a cup plus two tablespoonfuls of sugar, one tea- 
spoonful of butter, three-quarters of a cup of boiling 
water. This makes a pie about one-third the usual size. 
Make and put together the same as directed in home rule. 

To Make Meringue for Pie. 

In making a meringue use two tablespoonfuls of sugar 
to one egg white. Put part of the sugar on the egg 
white before beating at all, beat this just enough to thor- 
oughly incorporate the two, then add the remainder of 
the sugar, and beat until, when the beater is lifted through 
the beaten white, it will stand in points. Spread on the 
pie, and brown a golden brown in a moderate oven. A 
wire spoon beater is best for beating egg whites. 

Huckleberry Pie. 

Mix with the huckleberries about one-third as many 
currants or red raspberries. Sprinkle over them about 
two-thirds of a cup of sugar, with which has been mixed 
two heaping dessertspoonfuls of flour. Finish as any two- 
crusted pie. 

Cherry Pie. 

Line the pie tin with piecrust. Wash and stone the 
cherries, fill the crust, and sprinkle over them one cup of 



DESSERTS. 363 

sugar, with which has been mixed two level tablespoon- 
fuls of flour. Put on the top crust, and bake, being sure 
that the edges are well pressed together. The cloth bands 
spoken of in the article on pastry may be needed. 

Rhubarb Pie. 

Wash the rhubarb, peel, if necessary, and cut into inch 
lengths. Pour boiling water over it, and let stand a few 
minutes, then drain and cook in as little water as possible, 
and fill a previously baked crust as described for linen pie ; 
or mix two tablespoonfuls of flour with the sugar, and 
stir the mixture into the rhubarb raw, then fill the pie and 
bake. Use the cloth or paper tube described on page 357 
with this pie. 

Linen Pie. 

In a linen pie, the crust is made, and the pie filled with 
tissue paper, and the crusts baked thus, then the top crust 
is lifted off and the filling put into the pie, and the crust 
replaced. The object is to avoid having a soggy lower 
crust. It is well to flour the lower crust or brush over 
with egg white to prevent soaking when the fruit is cooked 
in the pie. 

Apple Pie. 

Make a crust the same as for any pie, fill with tart ap- 
ples, pared, cored and cut in thick slices, sprinkle with 
sugar and dot with bits of butter if desired. Put on the 
top crust, press the edges firmly together, and bake until 
the fruit is done. 

Potato Pie No. 1. 

Over one-half pint of grated raw potatoes pour one 
quart of boiling milk, and let cook in double boiler until 
the potato is done. Let cool, and add three well-beaten 
eggs. Sweeten to taste, and flavor with nutmeg. Bake 
same as custard pies, and use fresh. 



364 HOUSEHOLD SCIENCE. 

Potato Pie No. 2. 

One cup sweet milk, two tablespoonfuls of flour, two 
tablespoonfuls of butter, one small egg, one-half cup of 
mashed potato, one-quarter teaspoonful of salt, one-eighth 
teaspoonful of grated nutmeg, one teaspoonful of fruit 
vinegar. Cook the milk, butter and flour together until 
like thick cream. Add the vinegar and salt, pour boiling 
hot over the beaten egg yolk, and mix well. Add the 
mashed potato, and beat until smooth and thoroughly 
mixed. Return to the fire, and let boil, and fold in the 
egg white, and pour the mixture into a previously baked 
crust, same as in making a lemon pie. 

Squash Pie. 

Crust : One and one-fourth cups of flour, one-half cup 
(scant) of fat, — lard or butter, — one-fourth teaspoonful of 
salt. Just enough ice water to make the mixture stick to- 
gether. Use extra flour for kneading. One-half table- 
spoonful of baking powder may be used, then use only 
one-third cup (scant) of fat. 

Filling : One and one-half cups of stewed sifted squash 
(cook until dry), one cup of boiling milk, one-fourth cup 
of granulated sugar, one-fourth cup of brown sugar, one- 
half teaspoonful of salt, one-fourth teaspoonful each cin- 
namon, cloves and ginger, one egg. Beat egg with the 
squash, add the sugar, which has had the spices mixed 
with it, and, last, the milk, stirring as it is added, fill the 
crust, and bake in a slow oven. Cover the top with grated 
cheese or a meringue. 

Squash Pie— Class Rule. 

One-half cup of squash, cooked dry and made smooth, 
one-third cup of milk, one tablespoonful of sugar, one ta- 
blespoonful of sorghum molasses, one and one-half table- 
spoonfuls of egg, one-sixth teaspoonful of spices. This 
makes a pie about one-third the usual size. Make and 
bake same as above. 



DESSERTS. 365 

Baked Apple Dumplings. 

Make a plain crust same as for pie. Core and pare tart 
apples and cut into quarters, then halve each quarter at 
right angles to its length. Roll the dough as for pies, and 
cut into pieces large enough to wrap the halves in. Put 
the sugared apples in, fold the edges together, and pinch 
to make them adhere. Place in the pan open side up, 
and bake until the apples are tender. Serve with sugar 
and cream, or with a made sauce, such as caramel cream. 

Fritter Batter for Fruit or Fish. 

One-fourth teaspoonful of salt, one egg yolk, four 
tablespoonfuls of milk or water and two teaspoonfuls 
of olive oil or clarified butter, one-half cup of flour. If 
fruit is used put sugar in batter. Beat the egg well, and 
add the oil slowly, then add the milk and flour alternately 
— the salt may be put in the flour. Beat the white of the 
egg very stiff, and fold in last. 

When you wish to use the batter for both fruit and 
clam fritters, divide the mixture into two parts. To part 
one, add a scant one-fourth teaspoonful of lemon juice, 
one round tablespoonful of minced clam, or dip clams 
until coated, and fry. When clams are to be dipped in the 
fritter batter, clam broth may be used instead of milk. 
Use part two for the fruit. 

Rissoles. 

Use any kind of pastry dough, and make and bake same 
as a turnover, or seal edges well and fry in deep fat. 

Mince Meat for Pie. 

Two pounds of lean beef, one pound of beef suet, one 
and one-half pounds of sugar, one cup sorghum molasses, 
one quart of sweet cider, fruit juice or weak vinegar, two 
pounds of raisins, two pounds of currants, two lemons 
(juice and grated rinds), two tablespoonfuls of ground 
cinnamon, one-half tablespoonful of ground cloves, one- 
half tablespoonful of ground allspice, four pounds of tart 



366 HOUSEHOLD SCIENCE. 

apples, one pound of citron. Boil the beef and suet to- 
gether in as little water as is practicable, until tender. 
Drain, let cool, free from bone, etc., and chop. Clean cur- 
rants and raisins, pare apples, and cut citron fine. Chop 
apples and raisins. Mix spices and sugar together, and 
put into the liquid. Add the dried fruit and apples, and 
bring to the boiling point, then add the chopped meat, 
and when it again boils set aside to cool. It makes bet- 
ter pies if allowed to stand for a few days until the flavors 
are thoroughly blended. 

Cheese Straws No. 1. 

Roll out scraps of pie crust thin, as for pies, and cut 
with a sharp knife into strips three-eighths of an inch 
wide. Lay in a pan so that there will be a fourth inch 
space between, cover thickly with grated cheese, sprinkle 
with salt and pepper and bake in a hot oven. When done 
remove at once from the pan, and cut apart. Serve with 
salads. 

Cheese Straws No. 2. 

Roll out scraps of pie dough thin, as for pies. Cover 
one-half the surface thickly with American cheese (grat- 
ed), dust with salt and pepper, fold the other half over 
this, roll thin again, cut into strips, and bake as in No. I. 

FROZEN DISHES. 

There are various mixtures under the general head of 
"ice creams." There is one which is made of pure cream 
or of cream and milk, with sweetening and flavoring, 
and another which has a custard as a basis. This custard 
may be made of milk and eggs, or these two, plus corn- 
starch or arrowroot. Arrowroot and the whites of egg 
are the most satisfactory of anything of this kind if the 
cream is to be tinted, as it is clearer. A pure cream ice 
cream will be smoother if the cream is scalded and the 
sugar added to the hot cream. Parfaits, mousses, bis- 



FROZEN DISHES. 367 

ques, and other things of a porous character are classified 
under this head, but differ in the manner of freezing. The 
others are all frozen in the same way. 

Directions for Freezing Ice Creams. 

See that the freezer is in good condition, and that all 
parts are at hand. The more paddles a freezer has, the 
finer the cream. Scald the tin can, and see that it is in the 
socket in the bottom. Put the ice into a coarse bag, and 
pound it fine. The cream is more velvety with fine than 
with coarser ice. Salt of medium coarseness is best be- 
cause it can be packed more closely. Put the can in place, 
pour the prepared cream into it, put in the flange, cover, 
and put on the crank. See that it turns easily, and then 
proceed to pack with salt and ice. First put in a layer 
of ice, then a layer of salt, using about three times as 
much ice as salt. May mix them in the pan before pack- 
ing around the can. When ready to freeze, remove the 
cover carefully, and put the egg whites into the cream. 

The freezer tub should have a hole near the top 
only, and this should be left open to prevent the salt 
water running into the cream can. When the cream 
is frozen, carefully remove the cover to prevent bits 
of ice entering the can, take out the flange, stir the 
cream down, and replace the cover, fit a cork tightly in the 
hole at the top, put a cup over this, pound the ice down 
at the sides, and cover the top with ice. 

If the cream is to be molded, rinse the mold with cold 
water, and as soon as the flange is removed, and the cream 
well beaten, fill the molds, pressing down to make sure 
that the patterns are filled, and the cream solid. Moisten 
a piece of thin, firm paper, put it over, and fit the cover 
tightly. Bind a buttered cloth firmly around the opening 
to keep the salt water out, then imbed the mold in ice and 
salt. Individual molds need to be firmer than large 
molds. It is well to use a little gelatine in creams for 
molding if the day is very warm. Pack individual molds 



368 HOUSEHOLD SCIENCE. 

in a pail, pack the pail, and use a larger proportion of salt. 
When a cream and an ice are molded together, put the ice 
above, as it is apt to melt more readily than the cream if 
it touches the plate on which it is placed. To dip the 
cream out when serving, put a spoon in hot water, and cut 
out a cone. 

Plain Ice Cream. 

One quart of cream of medium thickness. Heat the 
cream scalding hot, and dissolve one cup of sugar in it. 
When cold, add two teaspoonfuls of vanilla and the same 
of lemon extract. Put in egg whites as directed above. 
Cream should not be frozen too rapidly, as it is apt to be 
coarse. Twenty to twenty-five minutes is a good length 
of time for three quarts or less. 

Caramel Ice Cream. 

Make same as plain ice cream, except sweeten with a 
thick caramel syrup, and use twice as much as would be 
needed of a plain syrup of sugar and water boiled to- 
gether because the sugar, when caramelized, is less sweet, 
or use enough caramel for flavor and color, and finish 
sweetening with plain sugar. 

Chocolate Ice Cream No. 1. 

Prepare the cream and sweeten as for plain ice cream. 
Put two tablespoonfuls of cocoa in a saucepan, and add 
enough cold water to make it a thin batter. Stir over the 
fire until cooked, then stir into the hot cream. When cold, 
flavor with one tablespoonful of extract of vanilla, put in 
the egg white after packing, and just before beginning to 
turn, same as before. 

Chocolate Ice Cream No. 2. 

Milk, one pint ; eggs, two, or one large one ; flour, two 
tablespoonfuls; sugar, one cup; cream, one quart; vanilla, 
one tablespoonful. If you make the chocolate without 
cream, use whole milk. Chocolate, two ounces of Baker's. 
Scrape chocolate and melt with equal quantity of sugar 
and two tablespoonfuls of water. Cook milk, flour and 



FROZEN DISHES. 369 

sugar together, and pour over the eggs. Cool, flavor, and 

freeze. 

Glace Cream. 

This is made by adding to plain ice cream, when nearly 
frozen, the following mixture : Boil together one cup of 
sugar, one cup of water, and one-eighth of a teaspoonful 
of cream of tartar until it will form a soft ball when 
dropped in cold water. Pour this boiling hot, in a small 
stream over the well-beaten whites of three eggs, and beat 
until it is cool. Flavor same as the ice cream. Open the 
freezer, put the mixture in, and turn the freezer until it is 
thoroughly mixed. A bomb glace is a glace cream and an 
ice of some fruit molded in a spherical form. The fruit 
usually is on the outside, completely covering the cream. 

A biscuit glace is a glace cream molded in individual 
forms. These biscuits are usually composed of two kinds 
of cream, or of an ice and a cream packed in the small 
paper cases in which they are served, and then put into 
a freezing can until very hard. 
Ice Cream — Custard Basis. 

Make a boiled custard, using two large eggs to a pint of 
milk. Beat the eggs, have the milk boiling hot, and pour 
a little at a time on the eggs, stirring well. When ready, 
put the whole in the double boiler, add the sugar, and 
cook until the custard coats the spoon. When cool, use 
two pints of cream and one pint of the custard, flavor, and 
freeze as before. 

Any variety of ice cream desired can be made from 
this by varying the flavoring, adding chopped nuts, etc. 
Mousses, etc., are frozen by packing the molds in ice, and 
leaving untouched for several hours. 
Coffee Parfait. 

Parfaits are frozen like ices. One cup of double cream, 
one-third cup of sugar, one-fourth cup of black coffee. 
Mix the coffee and the cream, whip, skim off the froth, 
mold, and pack. 



370 HOUSEHOLD SCIENCE. 

Strawberry Mousse. 

Have double cream very cold, in an earthen bowl, beat 
and drain. The bowl, cream, and whip should be cold 
for beating cream. When not cold, the cream will make 
butter. Mix with the cream enough strawberry syrup to 
flavor it, put into a mold, pack in salt and ice, and let 
stand several hours. The syrup both sweetens and flavors 
the cream. 

Tutti Frutti Ice Cream. 

This cream is a plain ice cream, with French candied 
fruits cut fine and added when nearly frozen. Fruits must 
not be added long enough before serving to freeze hard, 
as the object desired is to simply chill them well. 

Fruit Ice Cream. 

Use either a pure cream or a custard basis. Sweeten as 
before, but do not flavor. When about half frozen, re- 
move the cover, and add the fruit, finely pulped and 
sweetened to taste. Peaches should be cooked, unless 
very soft, and put through a puree sieve. Strawberries 
and raspberries should be put through a sieve to re- 
move the seeds, Bananas, if sliced fine, can be used as 
they are. If the fruit is in pieces, care must be taken to 
not freeze the fruit hard. 
Ice Cream Flavored with Fruit Syrups. 

Strawberry syrup, raspberry syrup, etc., may be easily 
canned while we have fruit, and they make the most 
delicious creams when fresh fruit cannot be had. Such 
fruit syrups should be boiled until thick, and sweetened, 
as a thin fruit juice will make a watery cream. 

Hokey Pokey Ice Cream. 

This has condensed milk as its basis, and requires a little 
higher flavor than an ordinary ice cream, otherwise it is 
made in the same way as plain cream. 

Brown Bread Ice Cream. 

Brown bread ice cream, macaroon ice cream, etc., are 
simply plain ice cream with a portion of fine crumbs 
stirred in just at the last. 



FROZEN DISHES. 371 

Pistachio Ice Cream. 

Make the same as directed for plain ice cream, except 
leave out the lemon and vanilla extract, and put in ex- 
tract of pistachio, and tint with spinach coloring, or use 
the pounded pistachio nuts, if you can get them. 
Frozen Fig Pudding. 

Milk, one quart ; eggs, four ; sugar, one cup ; gelatine, 
one tablespoonful (unphosphated) ; vanilla extract, one 
tablespoonful ; figs, one-half pound ; walnuts, one-half 
pound. Soak the gelatine in cold water to cover. Put the 
gelatine in a bowl, and pour one-half cup of hot milk over 
it. Make a custard of the sugar, the eggs and the re- 
mainder of the milk. Pour the hot custard over the gela- 
tine, and stir until dissolved. Let cool, and freeze. When 
nearly frozen, add the figs and nuts, cut fine. Let stand 
packed one hour before serving. 

Water Ices. 

These are usually made of fruit juices, sugar, and wa- 
ter. Sometimes white of egg is added. Sorbets, granites, 
and punches are properly served in the midst of a dinner, 
immediately after a roast. Sherbets are usually served at 
the end of a dinner, but are sometimes served instead of 
a punch. Sorbets and punches are simply iced or partially 
frozen. They should have smooth, even, cream-like con- 
sistency. Sherbets, when frozen in an ice-cream freezer 
with many paddles, especially when white of egg is used 
in their composition, are very smooth and creamy. Some 
object to this because they do not mold well. When a 
syrup is made with the water and sugar before adding to 
the fruit juice, the sherbet is finer grained than when the 
sugar and water are added cold. If the sherbet is to be 
molded with ice cream, it is better to mix the ingredients 
cold, and freeze without the flange, scraping from the 
sides of the can with a wooden spoon, and beating well 
occasionally. Sherbets are usually served in sherbet cups. 
Orange sherbet is nice served in orange cups. Granites, 
as the name indicates, should always be rough and coarse- 



372 HOUSEHOLD SCIENCE. 

grained. They and sherbets should be frozen as firm as 
any ice cream. Granites are made by packing sweetened 
fruit juices and water in ice and coarse salt for three or 
four hours, or more, and stirring little. 

Liquors are often used in ices, but they should never 
enter into any dish except in cases of severe illness, and 
then only by a physician's order. 

Pineapple Sorbet. 

Pare a fresh pineapple, and take out the eyes. Shred the 
pineapple with a silver fork. Mix with it, in an earthen 
bowl, two cups of sugar. Set closely covered in a cool 
place, and when the juice is extracted as much as possible, 
put into a jelly bag, and squeeze. Measure the juice and 
pour an equal amount of boiling water on the squeezed 
pulp in a bowl; stir well, put into the bag, and squeeze, 
and add this liquid to the juice. Put into a saucepan, and 
let boil a few minutes. Remove, and when cold add the 
juice of two oranges and one lemon. Put into the freezer, 
and turn until a mushy ice is formed, and serve. In con- 
sistency it is like a half-frozen sherbet. Serve in glass 
cups. 

Pineapple Sherbet. 

One pint of water and one pint of sugar, cooked to- 
gether into a syrup, one can of pineapple unsweetened, 
or one fresh pineapple shredded, juice of two lemons, one 
egg white, beaten stiff. Mix the syrup, pineapple, and 
lemon juice, put into the freezer, freeze until it begins to 
get white, and looks like snow and water mixed together, 
then add the beaten egg white, and freeze until it looks 
snow white and creamy. It should swell one-third or 
more. 

Banana Sherbet. 

Juice of three lemons (three- fourths cup), one and one- 
half cups of sugar, two and one-fourth cups of water, nine 
bananas, thinly sliced, three egg whites, unbeaten. Mix 
all together, and freeze. 



FROZEN DISHES. 373 

Milk Sherbet. 

One level tablespoonful of gelatine soaked in one-fourth 
of a cup of cold water. One pint of sugar, one pint of 
milk, juice of five lemons. Heat the milk, and dissolve 
the sugar in it, then pour over the soaked gelatine, and 
stir until dissolved. Mix all ingredients together and 
freeze at once. 

Currant Sherbet. 

One pint of currant juice. Make a heavy syrup of one 
pint of water and one pint of sugar. When thick, stir 
it into the currant juice, and add enough water to make a 
quart. Put the liquid into the freezer, drop in the white 
of one egg, and freeze same as ice cream. Raspberry and 
currant together make a fine sherbet. Use two-thirds 
currant juice and one-third red raspberry juice, and 
sweeten to taste. 

Panama Sherbet. 

One cup of orange juice, one pint of apple juice, from 
stewed apples, one cup sugar, one teaspoonful of gela- 
tine, one tablespoonful of cold water. Soak the gelatine 
in the water. Put the sugar into the apple juice, and boil 
a very little. Then pour over the gelatine and stir until 
dissolved. When cold, put all together, and freeze as di- 
rected on page 367. 

Lemon Sherbet. 

Juice of four lemons ( 1 cup), rind of one lemon, grated, 
juice of one orange, one pint of water, one pint of sugar. 
Cook the sugar with the orange peel and water until the 
liquid is flavored, strain out the peel, and proceed as 
above. 

Orange Sherbet. 

Two cups of orange juice, three tablespoons of lemon 
juice, one cup of granulated sugar, one and one-half cups 
of water; may use equal parts of fruit juice and water if 
desired. Cook the grated rind of one lemon, the sugar 
and water together five minutes, add the fruit juice, put 



374 HOUSEHOLD SCIENCE. 

into the freezer, add a dust of salt and the white of one 
egg and freeze. 

Ginger Sherbet. 

Two cups of orange juice, three tablespoonfuls lemon 
juice, one cup granulated sugar, one cup of water. Flavor 
with ginger. Equal parts of juice and water may be used. 
Cook the sugar and water together five minutes, then add 
the other ingredients, and freeze as any sherbet. 

Lemon Punch. 

Juice of six large lemons and one orange. Grated rind 
of one lemon. Measure the fruit juice, and add nearly an 
equal amount of water and one pint of sugar. Put over 
the fire and let boil ten minutes, then set aside to cool; 
when cold, pack in freezer. Put over the fire the grated 
lemon rind, one cup of water, and one-half a cup of sugar. 
Boil to the soft-balling stage, then strain, and pour boil- 
ing hot in a small stream over the beaten whites of three 
eggs, pouring slowly, and beating as in making boiled 
icing. Continue the beating until the mixture is nearly 
cold. Freeze the liquid in the freezer to the consistency 
of a half-frozen ice, put the meringue in, and turn the 
freezer until thoroughly mixed. Serve in cups, same as 
sherbet. 

W. C. T. U. Punch. 

Three teaspoonfuls of Ceylon tea, steeped, cooled and 
strained, one quart boiling water, one block ice five inches 
square, juice of four lemons, juice of one orange, one and 
one-half cups of sugar, one quart of Apollinaris water, 
one box of strawberries. Put the ice in the punch bowl, 
mix all the ingredients, and pour on the ice. Let stand ah 
hour, and serve. 

Macedoine Punch. 

One pint of hot water, pour over the grated yellow 
rind of one lemon and one pound of sugar and boil five 
minutes, strain and while still hot slice into it two me- 



FRUITS. 375 

ditim-sized bananas or three large peaches (canned 
peaches may be used and put in when cold). Add a cup 
of grated pineapple (either fresh or canned) and one 
pint, of canned cherries. When ready to serve add the 
juice of seven lemons and two oranges. Put a large 
block of ice in the center of the punch bowl, add two 
quarts of water and let stand two hours in a cool place. 
At the last moment add a few fine strawberries. This 
will serve twenty-five or thirty people. 
Strawberry Granite. 

Mash the strawberries, and squeeze the juice ou|t 
through a cloth. Mix water with the pulp, and squeeze 
again. Use equal amounts of the pure juice and the liquid 
from washing the pulp. Stir in sugar until it is a little 
sweeter than you would want to drink, as all frozen 
dishes taste less sweet after than before freezing. Add the 
juice of one lemon. Pour into the freezer, let stand sev- 
eral hours, loosening from the sides and stirring often 
enough to prevent freezing in large lumps, but do not 
beat enough to make smooth. 
Frozen Rice Pudding. 

One-half cup of rice, six cups of whole milk, three- 
fourths of a cup of sugar. Wash the rice, put it to cook in 
the milk, and set it on the back of the range, where it will 
cook slowly until the rice is perfectly soft. Then strain 
through a sieve. Add the sugar, and stir well. Then add 
one-fourth as much cream as there is of the strained rice, 
flavor, and finish as the plain ice cream. The milk should 
be evaporated to the consistency of cream when the rice 
is strained. 

FRUITS. 

As to whether raw fruits are better than cooked, there is 
a diversity of opinion. Much depends upon the individual. 
When one can take raw fruit without disturbing any of 

References: Boston Cook Book — Lincoln — pp. 361, 362; 
Parloa's Kitchen Companion, pp. 674-689; Buckeye Cook Book, 
pp. 407, 408. 



376 



HOUSEHOLD SCIENCE. 



the digestive processes, it is well to do so. The fruit acids 
have medicinal properties, and aid in toning the system. 
It is evident, also, that when fruit is eaten raw, none of its 
food value is lost, as in cooking. 

Fruits which are eaten raw should be mature, free from 




blemish, and perfectly ripe. No fruit or vegetable which 
has begun to decay should be eaten raw. Such food is 
not only unsanitary, but is usually lacking in flavor. 

All fruit which is to be eaten raw should be washed 
before serving. The fact is that most fruit has passed 
through several hands before reaching the table. 



FRUITS. 377 

Strawberries and Blackberries. 

Strawberries, blackberries, and all soft, small fruits 
should be washed by putting" into a colander, and moving it 
up and down in clear water, thus removing all sand and 
dust. Never wash them long before serving, because they 
soften quickly when wet. Wash strawberries before hull- 
ing. 
To Prepare Oranges and Lemons. 

Oranges and lemons should be scrubbed with a vege- 
table brush. Apples and pears will have a better gloss if 
rubbed well with a dry cloth. Peaches should merely have 
the fuzz rubbed off carefully. To prepare grapes for the 
table, remove all imperfect ones with a sharp knife, then 
wash each bunch, by moving about in water. Cherries and 
strawberries, when large and nice, may be served on the 
stems as picked, each guest being supplied with a small 
dish of powdered sugar. In arranging fruits for the table, 
it is frequently well to serve different kinds on the same 
dish, and so combine colors and varieties as to give a 
pleasing effect. A few green leaves interspersed with the 
fruit beautifies the dish. Raw fruits should always be 
served cold, and for the sake of variety, they are some- 
times frozen before serving. 
To Prepare Pineapple for the Table. 

Pare, and with a sharp knife remove the eyes. Shred 
fine with a silver fork. Put a layer of pineapple in a serv- 
ing dish, and sprinkle with sugar, continue thus until the 
dish is filled. Cover closely, and keep cool until serving 
time. 

To Prepare Watermelon for the Table. 

Wash the outside clean, and put in the cellar or in 
cold water until thoroughly cold. Then cut in slices, or 
in any of the fancy shapes, before putting on the table. 
Serve on a plate with a fork. 

It is better to bring melons from the garden early in 
the morning, when possible, as they are then cool, and 
can be easily kept so. 
I 



378 



HOUSEHOLD SCIENCE. 



To Prepare Cantaloupes for the Table. 

See that they are cold, clean, and wiped dry. If small, 
halve them, remove the seeds, and serve a whole melon 
to each person. They may be served with a piece of ice 
in each half. If the melons are large, cut in eighths or 
fourths, and serve a piece to each person. 

To Cut Melons in Fancy Shapes. 

Wipe the outside of the melon until perfectly clean. 
Cut a thin slice off from each end of the melon, then cut 
in half, putting on the plate with the blossom or stem 
end down. With a large, sharp knife cut into wedge- 




Some Ways in Which Watermelons may be cut 
for Serving. 

shaped pieces which measure about two inches at the top 
on the rind. Do not remove the pieces as they are cut, 
but allow them to lie in the natural position when car- 
ried to the table. Or cut wedge-shaped pieces by cutting 
one piece two inches at the top, and running to a point at 
the other end the next piece will be pointed at the top, 
and large at the bottom. Now remove the pieces which 
are wide at the top, and leave the others in place on the 
platter, the effect is very pleasing. 

Another way is to cut the melons in half, lengthwise, 
then cut off a thin slice of the rind, so that the melon will 



FRUITS. 379 

rest firmly on the platter. With a large spoon, serve by 
the spoonful in cone-shaped pieces from the boat-shaped 
rind. The platter may be covered with leaves, green or of 
autumn tints, and the melon placed on them. 

Frozen Fruits. 

Fruits, although termed "frozen fruits," are not frozen, 
— they are merely thoroughly chilled. Berries and fruits 
of almost all kinds are sweetened and packed about one 
hour before ready for use. Small canteloupes may be cut 
in halves, salted a little, and packed in the freezer. Can- 
teloupes and other melons may be taken out in uniform 
pieces, and a little salt sprinkled on those which need it 
before packing them in the freezer. Bananas are peeled 
and sprinkled with sugar and lemon juice. Tomatoes 
are best chilled whole, and sliced when served. 

Chilled Beverages. 

Tea, coffee, egg-nog, meat broths, etc., should be 
chilled by having the ice around, and not in, them. 

Frozen Raspberries and Currants. 

Look over three cups of raspberries, wash them, place 
in a bowl, and stir into them one cup of red currants, and 
one and one-fourth cups of sugar, and mash. Let stand 
in a cool place one hour, - then add to them one cup of 
water, and freeze same as ice cream. 

Frozen Blackberries. 

Look over one quart of nice blackberries, wash, mash, 
and stir into them one cup of sugar. Let stand one hour, 
then add one cup of water and the juice of one lemon, and 
and freeze as any ice. 

Frozen Strawberries. 

Pick over and wash one quart of strawberries. Mash, 
and add two cups of sugar. Let stand an hour or two, 
then add the juice of one-half a lemon, and one cup of 



380 HOUSEHOLD SCIENCE. 

water. Stir well together, break in the white of one egg, 
freeze same as any ice. 

Frozen Apples. 

Prepare, cook, and sweeten to taste tart apples (cook 
in a little water or steam), mash through a colander, and, 
when ready to freeze, add for every four apples (one pint 
of pulp) used, the juice of an orange and one-half cup of 
water. Freeze as other ices. 

Peaches, Apricots and Pears. 

These may be frozen in a similar way, but none of them 
are so satisfactory as chilled raw fruits. To prepare 
chilled peaches, pare and pit one quart of perfectly ripe 
freestone peaches, pack a layer of peaches in the freezer, 
and add sugar to sweeten, then put in another layer of 
peaches, more sugar, and so on until there is a sufficient 
amount. Pack in ice and salt, and let stand two or three 
hours, that they may become thoroughly chilled, but not 
frozen hard. Serve with whipped cream. Any kind of 
soft, raw fruit may be chilled the same as the peaches. 

Frozen Watermelon. 

Use only the red part of the melon, and remove the 
seeds. Cut in small strips about two inches long, pack 
in the freezer, and pack the freezer-can in ice and salt, 
using an excess of salt, and let stand two or three hours, 
until near freezing, but not hard. Serve piled prettily in 
a dish. 

Frozen Cantaloupe. 

Prepare the cantaloupe by paring and removing the 
seeds, and cutting into long narrow strips, and chill in 
same manner as directed for watermelon. 

NUTS.* 

Nuts may be cracked before serving, or served whole, 

as one wishes. When served whole, nuts must be of 

*U. S. Dept. Agri., Office of Exp. Stations Bulletin No. 107. 



NUTS. 381 

such varieties as will readily yield to the pressure of the 
silver nut cracker. Salt should always be at hand when 
nuts are served. Almonds may be served shelled, un- 
shelled, or blanched. They are neither so fine in appear- 
ance or flavor when blanched as when served in the 
shell. Raisins in handsome clusters may be interspersed 
among the nuts. Salted almonds are served alone on 
small, handsome, round or oval-shaped dishes. French 
chestnuts are usually roasted, and served in the shell. 

To Roast Chestnuts. 

Cover the chestnuts with boiling water, and cook ten 
minutes. Drain, spread them in a dripping pan, and 
bake in the oven ten minutes. Serve hot. Chestnuts are 
sometimes slitted with a knife before putting to cook, to 
facilitate opening, but they lose much flavor when boiled 
thus, and should be steamed, if possible. 

To Blanch Almonds. 

Put shelled almonds in a bowl, and pour boiling water 
over them. When the skins slip, pour the water off, and 
skin the almonds. 

Salted Peanuts. 

In a pan, place shelled peanuts sufficient to cover the 
bottom, — about a pint of them ; pour on one tablespoon- 
ful of olive oil, or enough, by shaking them about, to 
grease them well, then sprinkle well with salt, and place 
in a hot oven and brown, shaking occasionally. 

Salted Almonds. 

Jordan almonds are preferable, and it is better to buy 
them shelled than unshelled. Put into a small pan one 
teaspoonful of olive oil, and one tablespoonful of salt, then 
add the almonds, and shake about until coated with oil. 
If butter is used, take twice the quantity, and get the al- 
monds hot before adding the butter. To this quantity of 



382 HOUSEHOLD SCIENCE. 

fat use one cup of almonds. Put the prepared almonds 
in an oven same heat as for bread, and stir and shake fre- 
quently to prevent burning. Shake fine salt over them 
again as they come from the oven. 

References: Common Sense in the Household — Harland — 
pp. 442-445; Parloa's Kitchen Companion, pp. 71, 72, 694-699; 
Boston Cook Book — Lincoln — pp. 391, 392; Food Products of 
the World — Green — pp. 217-232; Elements of Cookery — Wil- 
liams & Fisher — pp. 226-231; U. S. Dept. Agr., Farmers' Bul- 
letin No. 122, pp. 18-22. 



CHAPTER XXVIII. 
DIETARIES AND BILLS OF FARE.* 

Experiments in the feeding of domestic animals have 
been made in experiment stations and elsewhere during a 
considerable length of time, and the results have been care- 
fully studied by stock owners. Similar experiments have 
been made to ascertain the value of different foods and 
combinations of foods for human beings. These trials 
have been carried on during a shorter time, and their 
results have probably been less widely disseminated. In- 
vestigations along these two lines follow the same general 
principles. In some cases the results of investigations 
concerning the problems relating to nutrition in a 
food for man can be utilized in stock feeding. The 
cereals, for example, are used as food for both man and 
the lower animals, and when their chemical composition 
is known, it serves in both cases. Potatoes, when not too 
expensive, are similarly used. Human-food investigations 
have been carried on in the United States to some extent 
during the last twelve or fourteen years, but it is only 
since 1894 that an annual appropriation has been made for 
the study of the food and nutrition of man. One branch 
of this food investigation is known as "study of die- 
taries." The object of these investigations is to ascertain 
the kinds and amounts of food consumed by peo- 
ple of different occupation, age, sex, and environ- 
ment. The investigators ascertain what relation ex- 
ists between the cost and the food value of the dif- 
ferent food materials furnished, by finding the amount 
of available nutrients in each. They also ascertain how 
much of the food purchased is eaten, and how much is 
wasted, either on the table or in the kitchen. The periods 
of investigation vary from a week to four weeks, usually. 

*A. P. Bryant. Office Exp. Stations. 



384 HOUSEHOLD SCIENCE. 

The time of study is too short, and the cases which have 
been studied are too few, to warrant accurate statements 
on many points. 

The United States Department of Agriculture, with the 
aid of the agricultural colleges and experiment stations, 
has made a few hundred such studies. The entire number 
made in this country and others aggregate many hun- 
dreds. People in the same financial condition, and per- 
forming similar work, are not found to differ materially 
in their food consumption, except in a few cases. The 
negroes of the south constitute one of the most notable 
exceptions to the general rule. They consume large quan- 
tities of bacon and cornmeal in their diet, which leaves 
a consequent deficiency of tissue-building material. It is 
probable that some of the poorer white people in the 
south are likewise improperly nourished, as they use a 
similar diet. These dietary studies have impressed on all 
the very pleasant and encouraging fact that such institu- 
tions as that organized by Booker T. Washington at Tus- 
kegee, Alabama, and the one at Hampton, Virginia, have 
modified to some extent the diet of those who have come 
under their influence. The following cases show the con- 
ditions and illustrate the point in question : 

"A family, which may be regarded as typical, living on 
a plantation in Alabama, and coming in no way under 
educational influences, had a diet consisting of fresh pork, 
bacon, butter, milk, cornmeal, and sugar. This diet fur- 
nished 52 grams of protein and 3,235 calories of energy 
per man per day. Not very far away lived another fam- 
ily, two of the members of which had come under the in- 
fluence of the Tuskegee Institute. The diet here consist- 
ed of bacon, eggs, milk, butter, wheat flour, cornmeal, 
sugar, and molasses. The food per man per day furnish- 
ed 92 grams of protein and 3,270 calories of energy, or 
nearly twice as much protein, and the same energy, as 
was obtained by the preceding family. 

"In the outskirts of Tuskegee lived a colored carpenter 



DIETARIES AND BILLS OP FARE. 385 

who had learned his trade at the institute, and was quite 
skillful. His diet contained beef round, mutton leg, ba- 
con, lard, chicken, eggs, butter, milk, wheat flour, corn- 
meal, rolled oats, sugar, molasses, evaporated apples, and 
strawberries, — a diet as varied as is found in many fam- 
ilies in comfortable circumstances in other regions. The 
food furnished 97 grams of protein and 4,060 calories of 
energy per man per day. These results show more energy 
than is usually found in the food consumed by persons at 
moderate labor. The protein compares quite closely with 
that found in the diet of the average mechanic's family. 
The larger amount of energy is due perhaps to the fact 
that more muscular work was performed." 

Comparatively few accurate studies of the dietaries of 
farmers have been made. The statistics now at hand 
indicate that the one-sidedness of diet is greater in the 
south than in the north, but there is too little of the muscle- 
forming foods consumed, as compared with the heat and 
energy producing foods in both localities. By comparing 
the few dietary studies which have been made among 
farmers with those made among well-to-do people in the 
cities and towns, it will be seen that the farmer's diet has 
rather less protein and more energy-giving food than 
that of his city cousin. There is no good reason for this. 
The well-to-do farmer spends more money for machinery, 
repairs, and taxes during the year than the professional 
man or the mechanic spends for repairs, taxes, or rent 
in the city. The city man can seldom buy as good fresh 
fruits and vegetables as the farmer can produce in his 
garden, while the latter obtains them at much less cost. 
The farmer can usually raise as good winter vegetables as 
the man in the city can buy. The farmer gets as much 
muscle-forming material in a bushel of beans as the man 
in the city, who frequently pays many times the amount 
they cost the farmer. Sugar, coffee, cocoa, cereals, and, 
in some cases, flour, must be bought with cash by both. 

13 



386 HOUSEHOLD SCIENCE. 

Bui the farmer can produce cream to render the cereals 
and vegetables palatable, and supply his table with butter 
at much less cost than can be done by the man in the city 
or town. Pure skim milk is an excellent muscle former, 
and while it costs the farmer very little, his city cousin 
finds the price of pure milk is extreme vigilance, and five 
cents or more per quart. Fresh poultry and eggs cost 
the farmer very little, but there are times when it takes 
more money than the man in town can spare to procure 
these products in the market. Summing the matter up, 
it would seem, then, that the trouble is not in the difficulty 
of obtaining these needed nutrients, but in the fact that 
country people have given too little thought to the needs 
of the human body. Vegetables are abundant and always 
at hand. Cereals, breads, and cured meats give too large 
an amount of starch and fat for the other nutrients pres- 
ent. This is easily remedied. In summer use milk, eggs, 
and poultry freely. In winter, slaughter animals on 
the farm for food, pack the meat, and let it freeze. Farm- 
ers thus will have all the besi cuts at as low prices as 
others must pay for the poorer ones. Teach the young 
children to drink milk instead of tea and coffee, and they 
will be aided greatly in becoming strong and healthy. 

Great care should be exercised in combining foods for 
the different meals, as the way in which they are some- 
times combined has a bad effect upon both health and the 
purse. 

FATS AND OILS USED FOR FOOD. 

The fatty portion of our food is derived from both ani- 
mal and vegetable sources, but far the larger portion is 
from the animal kingdom. Butter is probably the most 
pleasant flavored and popular of the animal fats, and 
commands a high price simply because better flavored and 
possibly more easilv assimilated than most: other animal 
oils. Olive oil holds a place among vegetable oils similar 
to that occupied by butter among animal fats. Some 
vegetables contain much oil, and large sums of money and 



DIETARIES AND BILLS OF FARE. 387 

much time have been expended in endeavoring to prepare 
them for culinary purposes. 

Each fat, whether animal or vegetable, has a flavor pe- 
culiar to the animal or vegetable from which it is derived, 
hence in selecting fats for cooking food, as in frying and 
sauteing, we must choose fat which will combine har- 
moniously with the food to be cooked. In frying food in 
deep fat, the temperature of the fat has much to do with 
the food retaining its natural flavor, or taking the flavor 
of the fat in which it is cooking. If the fat is very hot 
when the food is put in, it does not impart its flavor to the 
cooking food. The odor of hot fat penetrates all parts 
of the house, and for this reason it is best to have, if 
possible, an odorless fat ; in any case, we must have a pleas- 
ant odored one. It is generally believed that fats of vegeta- 
ble origin will bear a higher heat without burning than ani- 
mal oils will. Manufacturers have made great efforts to so 
deodorize fats as to render them fit for all culinary pur- 
poses, such as making cakes, etc., but so far thee are few, 
if any, that are entirely free from their natural flavor. 
Vegetable oils are usually liquid at all ordinary tempera- 
tures, while many animal oils are solid or semi-solid. 
Lard leaves a coating on the outside of food cooked in it, 
and mutton or beef tallow cools quickly, leaving a tallowy 
taste. Beef and lard are better mixed than either alone, 
for many purposes. 

To prevent fats, either animal or vegetable, becoming" 
rancid, they should be kept in a cool place. All bits of 
fat from the kitchen, except those which are highly flavor- 
ed, as mutton fat, turkey fat, ham fat, etc., may be mixed 
and cooked slowly over the fire until they cease to bubble, 
then strained through cheesecloth, and used in cooking, 
greasing pans, etc. 

U. S. Dept. Agr., Farmers' Bulletin No. 122; pp ; 16 and 17- 
Food Products of the World — Green ; Johnston's Encyclope- 
dia: U. S. Dept. Agr. Farmer's Bulletin No. 121. 



388 HOUSEHOLD SCIENCE. 

Correct Combinations of Different Food Materials. 

In the combination of foods we have striking illustra- 
tions of the necessity of exercising both science and art in 
cookery. By art, we mean the disposition or modification 
of things by human skill, to answer the purpose intended. 
In order that the food fulfill its mission in the best man- 
ner, it must be palatable, digestible, and of such quantity 
and quality of nutrients as will meet all the demands of 
the system. The diet must be sufficiently varied to pre- 
vent its becoming distasteful. Each meal must be so ar- 
ranged as to not tempt those at the table to overeat. 

The stockman devotes much time, thought, skill, and 
labor to ascertaining the best combinations of food for the 
domestic animals under his care. He first studies the 
composition of feeding stuffs, both what he calls rough- 
age, as hay, etc., and those which are termed "concen- 
trates," as corn, oats, and such things. Experimenters as- 
certain the average coefficient of digestibility of these dif- 
ferent food nutrients. This accomplished, they find the 
nutritive ratio, that is, the ratio which exists between the 
.amount of digestible protein in a given feeding stuff, and 
the amount of digestible carbohydrates and ether extract 
which it contains. While the chemist and physiologist 
were ascertaining these things by analytical work and di- 
gestion trials, the stockman has been conducting feeding 
trials to determine how much protein, carbohydrates, etc., 
are required to properly nurture farm animals under vari- 
ous conditions. 

We, who are interested in the best rations for human 
beings, must master all these questions, and more than 
these, with human foods. Such things as the difference 
in the digestive apparatus of different persons, the effect 
of exercise and of rest, the consequence of the different 
modes of preparation of food, the effect of flavoring ma- 
terials and beverages taken with our meals, all complicate 
the problem very much. There is still another point of 
difference. The ox will eat his portion of hay day after 



DIETARIES AND BILLS OF FARE. 389 

day in contentment and happiness. When the ox has no 
labor to perform, the stockman needs to give him no 
further attention than to furnish him a maintenance ra- 
tion. It is not so with any specimen of the genus homo 
yet discovered. Even when he has need of no further 
food than the amount necessary to enable the heart to 
force the blood currents through the body, and give the 
digestive and assimilative organs power to do their work, 
if he only sits and breathes, he craves and needs, and per- 
haps demands, a variety of food. 

Those who carry on digestive experiments on human 
beings say that they find it practically impossible, often, to 
carry on such an experiment longer than two days, be- 
cause a single food, no matter how palatable at first, be- 
comes so repugnant to the subject. Dr. Livingston, the 
African explorer, says : "Experience proves that the Eu- 
ropeans have greater endurance than the hardiest of the 
meat-eating Africans." Another argument in favor of 
varied diet. It is claimed that too great sameness, long 
continued, leads to an impairment of the digestive organs. 
All this evidence leads to the belief that the desire for va- 
riety of food is based upon physiological grounds. 

For our present purpose, general principles applicable 
to all classes of people will be considered. Those ques- 
tions which each person must settle with his own stomach 
must be considered and studied by each woman who has 
the special cases to deal with. Few courses in a meal are 
far preferable to many courses for several reasons. Such 
a meal affords sufficient variety to meet the idiosyncracies 
of different members of the family. It gives a sufficient 
amount of the different kinds of food to meet the demands 
of the system. It gives an opportunity for greater variety 
at different meals, and prevents one so soon tiring of any 
certain kind of food. It also relieves very much the 
tendency to overeat. Three or four courses are usually 
quite enough for a family dinner. It is very often well to 
begin both dinner and lunch with a soup. Whether the 



390 HOUSEHOLD SCIENCE. 

soup contains much or little nutrition should govern, to 
some extent the remainder of the meal. 

In planning a meal, it is necessary not only to decide 
what food materials will furnish the needed nutrients in 
right amounts to meet the demands of the different mem- 
bers of the family, hut we must see that we do not choose 
too many foods that are slow of digestion, nor too large 
a number that digest very easily and quickly. When 
foods are improperly combined, some portions are not di- 
gested and assimilated fully, and as they lie in the diges- 
tive tract unused, poisonous products are liable to be 
produced. "A daily ration consisting of milk, oysters, and 
rice would contain all the nutrients required by the body, 
and would be of about the proper bulk required for a 
ration, but if a laboring man were fed on such a diet for 
a long time he would experience hunger, because the 
foods are so easily digested that the digestive organs would 
not have enough to do. A ration consisting of roast pork, 
hard tack, bread, beans, skim milk, cheese, and olives 
would be exceedingly slow of digestion. This ration 
would contain all the nutrients required by the body, but 
discomfort would be experienced by many if they at- 
tempted to digest such a ration."* 

The way in which improper combinations of food affect 
the cost of the nutrients is illustrated in the following : 

"Dietary studies were carried on in the families of a 
teacher and of a tinner living in Lafayette, Ind., during 
the spring of 1895. An examination of the details of the 
two studies shows that the teacher's family obtained per 
man per day 75 grams of protein and 1,425 calories of 
energy at a cost of twelve cents ; the tinner, 62 grams of 
protein and 1,640 calories of energy at a cost of thirteen 
cents. In other words, the actual nutritive value of the 
diet was not notably different in the two cases. The pro- 
portion of beef, veal, eggs, etc., in the two diets, was, 
however, quite different. The teacher's family used large 

♦Snyder. 



DIETARIES AND BILLS OF FARE. 391 

amounts of beef round, shoulder, and some loin steaks, 
which were purchased at low prices. The tinner's family 
used rather less beef, but the cuts that were used were, 
on the whole, more expensive. The teacher's family used 
more veal, which was relatively costly, less eggs, more 
than twice as much milk, and less butter than the tinner's 
family. On the whole, the former got a little more pro- 
tein and a little less energy than the latter in the animal 
foods purchased. 

"However, the great difference in the two dietaries lies 
in the kind of cereal foods purchased. The teacher's 
family had home-made bread and cakes, while the tinner's 
family bought bakers' bread, and occasionally cakes. The 
former obtained his bread at about one-half the cost to 
the latter, even when a reasonable allowance is made for 
the cost of all the ingredients in the bread, and the heat 
required to bake it. The teacher's family used more 
cereals and less vegetables and fruits than the tinner's 
family. In these ways, the former family obtained in 
their vegetable foods 36 grams of protein and 1,485 
-calories of energy for six cents per man per day, while 
the latter spent more than twice the amount (thirteen 
cents) per man per day, and obtained 44 grams of protein 
and 2,200 calories of energy. In other words, the teacher 
obtained for eighteen cents as much protein and nearly as 
much energy as did the tinner for twenty-six cents."* 
Waste of Food. 

Dietary studies have brought out the fact that the waste 
of food material varies from three per cent, to six per cent, 
of the amount furnished. In some families there is prac- 
tically nothing wasted ; in others there is much waste. 
Waste occurs in four ways, — two of them in the kitchen 
and two at the table. The one who prepares the meals 
may waste by too much or unwise trimming of meats and 
vegetables, and in the manner of cooking them. She may 
also waste by cooking a larger amount than is needed, and 

* Bryant. 



392 HOUSEHOLD SCIENCE. 

by lack of skill in so preparing left-overs as to have them 
sufficiently palatable to be eaten. Those at the table waste 
by eating more than the system requires, and by taking 
on their plates more than they can eat. The food chemists 
have no intention of ascertaining what portion of food 
shall be weighed out to each person daily ; neither is it in- 
tended that a dietary for each clay in the week shall be 
printed and hung up, thus relieving the people of respon- 
sibility. Their only object is to show the nutritive value 
of different food materials, and point out which are the 
most economical sources of nutrients, and what combina- 
tions, will, in general, best subserve the purpose intended. 
The special applications must be made by each individual 
and each family. 

Food Values. 

Some people avoid white flour, in the belief that it is 
composed largely of starch. A study of the chemical an- 
alyses of wheats and flours will reveal the fact that white 
flour from hard northwestern spring wheat is rich in pro- 
tein compounds. It contains twelve per cent, or more 
of muscle-forming material. 

The idea is prevalent that yellow cornmeal contains 
more fat than white cornmeal. Chemical analyses show 
no difference in the composition of meal made from corn 
grown under the same conditions, whether yellow or 
white. The color has no practical bearing on the food 
value. Yellow butter is more attractive, and more pleas- 
ing in appearance, but has no greater food value than 
white butter. The same may be said of eggs having a 
dark-yellow yolk. The banana is a valuable fruit, but it 
cannot take the place of other foods. A child would be 
better nourished if he breakfasted on potatoes alone, than 
on bananas alone, but plain bread and milk would be better 
than either of the others, if a single dish is taken. Some 
people still cling to the idea that mushrooms contain much 



DIETARIES AND BILLS OF FARE. 393 

nutriment. Chemical analyses show them no better than 
other vegetables in this respect, and inferior to some. 

References: U. S. Office Exp. Stations, Reprint from Year 
Book Dept. Agr. 1898— A. P. Bryant— pp. 445-450; U. S. Dept. 
Agr., Farmers' Bulletin No. 93, pp. 13, 14; U. S. Dept. Agr., 
Office Exp. Stations, Bulletin No. 37, p. 57: U. S. Dept. Agr., 
Office Exp. Stations, Bulletin No. 29, p. 45; U. S. Dept. Agr., 
Office Exp. Stations, Bulletin No. 21, pp. 206-214: U. S. Dept. 
Agr., Exp. Stations, Bulletin No. 32, p. 28; Feeds & Feeding- 
Henry— pp. 616-618, 641; Minn. Bulletin No. 54, pp. 70-72; U. 
S. Dept. Agr. , Office Exp. Stations, Bulletin No. 98, p. 31 et seq. 



CHAPTER XXIX. 

MEAT— ITS USES AND ABUSES. 

Those who have studied the dietaries of different people 
tell us that well-to-do professional men and students in 
America consume much larger portions of muscle-form- 
ing foods than are found necessary to well-nourished men 
of the same class in Europe. Shall we continue to feed 
ourselves unwisely because we live in a land of plenty, or 
shall we let reason regulate our diet and be blessed with 
sound bodies and unclouded intellects? Prof. Atwater 
says: "Taking results as they are, they very decidedly 
confirm the general impression of hygienists that our diet 
is one-sided, and that we eat too much. This is due 
partly to our large consumption of sugar, and partly to 
our use of such large quantities of meat." 

A diet composed too largely of meat tends to produce 
acid fluids in the body. The gastric juice, acid in its 
normal state, becomes more acid. The saliva, normally 
alkaline, becomes acid. The result often is disease, 
brought about by these unnatural conditions. There are 
foods which produce the opposite effect. 

Under the general term "meat" may be included fish, 
as well as other animals the flesh of which is used for 
food. 

In some localities, fish is a cheaper source of protein 
than meat. It always forms a pleasant variety, as well 
as a nourishing food. The belief that fish is a fine brain 
food no longer has credence. Analyses have shown it not 
universally richer in phosphorus than other animal flesh. 
Neither is there any evidence that persons using fish in- 
stead of meat have greater brain power. The nutritive 
value of fish, like other foods, depends upon the digesti- 



MEAT— ITS USES AND ABUSES. 395 

bility. Experiments so far have shown it to be about like 
meat in this respect. The fatter fish, and especially where 
the fat is mingled with the lean, are more difficult of diges- 
tion than those containing less oil. Cod, haddock, perch, 
pike, and bluefish are some of the leaner fish, while salmon, 
shad, and mackerel belong to the other class. 

Analyses show that lobsters, crabs, shrimps, etc., con- 
tain some nutrients, but these and oysters must always 
be regarded as delicacies, over the greater portion of the 
world, on account of the difficulty of obtaining them fresh 
and at a reasonable price. According to the data recently 
collected by the United States Fish Commissioner, more 
than a billion pounds of fish are taken annually in the 
United States waters, and mostly consumed at home, yet 
people in the inland towns and cities seldom have a really 
delicious fish, except when they visit the lakes in summer, 
so quickly do fish lose their finest flavor. There is a 
difference in the flavors of fresh and salt-water fish. 
Which is better, depends entirely upon individual taste. 
The price of fish in the market depends on several things. 
Fish from clear, deep, cool water are preferable to those 
which inhabit water that is shallow and warm, and they 
consequently command a higher price. Water which 
flows over a rocky and sandy bottom contains fish prefera- 
ble to those which inhabit a stream having a muddy bot- 
tom. Some fish are considered very poor or unfit for 
food during the spawning season, but shad are at their 
best at this time. The manner in which fish are taken 
also affects their food value very materially. Where 
gill nets are used, and the fish die slowly in the wa- 
ter, they decompose readily, and are very inferior. 
When fish are thrown upon the land, and allowed to 
die slowly, the result is the same. They should, in all 
cases, be killed immediately, both because it is more hu- 
mane, and on account of the food value. Fish may be 
bought in the market either whole or dressed. It is bet- 
ter to buv those from which the entrails and scales have 



396 HOUSEHOLD SCIENCE. 

been removed. There will probably be less nutritive ma- 
terial lost if the remainder of the dressing is done at 
home. According to good authorities, fish lose from ten 
to fifty per cent, of their weight in their preparation for 
cooking, the amount lost depending upon the size of the 
fish. Fish preserved by salting, smoking, and drying, or 
by a combination of these ways, can always be obtained 
well preserved, but the flavor, of course, is changed. Salt 
fish must be kept under brine. When wished for use, 
they should be soaked in plenty of cold water, skin side 
up. The water should be changed several times. After 
such treatment, they are very palatable when cooked. 
Finnan haddie (a dried fish) is best washed clean and 
braised, or stewed in sweet milk. Codfish requires a little 
different treatment still. Dried fish weigh much less 
than fresh fish, owing to the evaporation of water. The 
loss ranges from fifty to sixty per cent., or more, ac- 
cording to whether the fish are boned. Large quantities 
of fish are canned each year. Most fish are canned in 
their own juices ; the flavor of the fresh fish is thus largely 
retained, and they will keep indefinitely before the can is 
opened. 

The clam juice and fish extracts offered for sale have 
little or no food value, but are, no doubt, beneficial in 
some cases. Preservatives are probably used in some 
cases in shipping fish and oysters, but their use is not de- 
sirable because of their harmful results. Laws have re- 
cently been passed in some states preventing the use of 
preservatives in various food products. 

*"Ptomaines are poisonous bodies due to the action of 
micro-organisms. They are chemical compounds of 
definite composition, and are elaborated by micro-organ- 
isms breaking down the complex ingredients of animal 
tissue, just as alcohol is due to the action of yeasts break- 
ing down sugar, or as acetic acid is due to the action of 
mycoderma acetic breaking down alcohol. The formation 

*U. S. Dept. Agr., Bulletin No. 85. 



MEAT— ITS USES AND ABUSES. 397 

of ptomaines quite generally — although not always — ac- 
companies putrefaction (often in its early stages), and 
therefore great care should he taken to eat fish only when 
it is in perfectly good condition. Fish which has been 
frozen, and after thawing kept for a time before it is 
cooked, is especially likely to contain injurious ptomaines. 

"Canned fish should never be allowed to remain long in 
the can after opening, but should be used at once. There 
is some possibility of danger from the combined action of 
the can contents, and the action of the air upon the solder 
of the can itself. Furthermore, canned fish seems pecu- 
liarly suited to the growth of micro-organisms when ex- 
posed to the air. 

"Finally, fish offered for sale should be handled in a 
cleanly manner, and stored and exposed for sale under 
hygienic conditions. 

"Oysters, when 'floated' or 'fattened,' should never be 
placed in water contaminated with sewage, as such 
contains typhoid fever germs, or other harmful material. 
It is only just to say that the dangers from parasites, mi- 
cro-organisms, ptomaines, and uncleanly surroundings 
are not limited to fish. Under the conditions which favor 
the growth of micro-organisms, meat and other highly 
nitrogenous animal foods undergo decomposition resulting 
in the formation of ptomaines. Animal parasites may be 
acquired from flesh of various kinds, if not thoroughly 
cooked, provided, of course, the flesh is infected. This 
danger is reduced by proper inspection. Vegetable foods 
may also become contaminated in various ways. The im- 
portance of measures to secure pure and wholesome food 
can hardly be overstated. The best interests of the peo- 
ple undoubtedly demand a strict and impartial supervision 
by public officers of the sale of food products." 

"In view of statements of a popular nature which have 
been made on the dangers from eating poisonous fish, or 
from ptomaines contained in fish, a few words sum- 
marizing the actual knowledge on these topics seems de- 



398 HOUSEHOLD SCIENCE. 

sirable. There are several species of fish which are ac- 
tually poisonous. Few of them, however, are found in 
the United States, and the chances of their being offered 
for sale are very small. Such fish are mostly confined to 
tropical waters. Fish may contain parasites, some of 
which are injurious to man. These are, however, de- 
stroyed bv the thorough cooking to which fish is usually 
subjected."* 

Small fish are usually preserved in oil, and are often 
broiled and served on toast at luncheons. 

Herring are usually either pickled or kippered, — that is, 
salted and dried. Herring, sprat, and Yarmouth bloat- 
ers — all small fish — are used for relishes. 

Anchovies are small fish, caught in great numbers in 
the Mediterranean Sea. They can be had pickled or pre- 
served in oil, or in the form known as anchovy paste or 
butter. The whole fish are used as relishes, and served 
in a similar manner to those spoken of before. The paste 
is used in making sandwiches and sauces. 

Lobsters are usually found in our markets boiled. Like 
the rest of the fish family, they have the best flavor when 
killed soon after leaving the water. Professional lobster 
cookers boil them immediately after they are taken from 
the water. When bought alive, they should be very 
lively. 

Shrimps are usually found in the northern markets 
cooked. They are generally shelled also ; lobsters are not. 

Prawns are much like shrimps, but larger and coarser. 
All three are used in soups, salads, and sauces. Craw- 
fish are usually sold in the shell, and are used for bisques, 
and for garnishing dishes of fish, when used at all. 

Oysters can be bought in the shell or bulk. Liquid 
oysters have, in addition, the liquid which comes from 
the shell, diluted with more or less water. Solid oys- 
ters are almost free from liquid. Oysters are usually 



MEAT— ITS USES AND ABUSES. 399 

divided into three grades. The larger ones are called 
"counts," and are used for frying, broiling and panning. 
"Selects" are next in size. They are sometimes called 
"culls," and are nice for escaloping. The smallest are 
called "stewing oysters." When oysters are taken as 
they come from the shell, large and small together, they 
are called "straights." 

According to the best authority, beef gives more muscle- 
forming food in proportion to the fat than either mutton 
or pork. In mutton and lamb, the proportion of protein 
and fat is about the same as in the fatter cuts of beef. 
The leaner cuts of pork contain practically as much fat 
as the fatter cuts of other meats. Smoked ham is similar 
in composition to the cuts just mentioned. The large pro- 
portion of fat is due in part to the loss of water. The 
carbohydrates of meat are scarcely worth mentioning, 
being only a fraction of one per cent. The amount of 
mineral matter varies. The most important mineral mat- 
ters are phosphates of potash, lime, and magnesia. There 
is a wide difference in the food value of meat, whether 
it be cuts from different animals or different cuts from 
the same animal. The chuck rib contains about the same 
amount of nutrients as the loin. Cuts from the loin cost 
about one-third more. The reason for this is that the 
loin can be cut into steaks, which can in a few minutes 
be ready for the table, and they have a fine flavor. The 
cuts from the chuck rib require much more time to render 
them equally palatable, and in many cases as digestible, as 
the other. The extra one-third is paid to gain flavor and 
save time and skill. Here again the farmer has the ad- 
vantage over his city cousin, — he can have the entire car- 
cass for live-weight cost. 

The prime ribs often give less nutritive material than 
the chuck ribs, but they sell for a higher price. The cuts 
from rump and round can usually be bought for two- 
thirds the price paid for the choice cuts, and if one de- 
sires as much food value as possible for the monev ex- 



400 HOUSEHOLD SCIENCE. 

pended, it is well to buy these, and by skillful manipula- 
tion render them palatable and digestible. People who 
are acquainted with the manner in which the poor of the 
cities live say that the married women who work for 
wages could often save more money than they earn by 
staying at home and skillfully manipulating their domestic 
affairs. It is said that they often buy the better cuts of 
meat because they are so much more readily prepared. 

Meat is a large item of expense in any family, but the 
tougher cuts are usually the least expensive. Why are 
some cuts of meat tougher than others? The muscles 
which are much used are always tougher than those 
which are used little or none. Compare the tough, juicy 
round with the tender, dry tenderloin of beef. The rea- 
son the same cuts from different animals vary in this 
respect is that each little filament or fibrillae of which the 
muscle is composed is surrounded by a membrane. If 
the animal from which the meat was made was young 
and well nourished, this tissue is small in proportion to 
the central part of the filament. In an old and poorly- 
nourished or hard-worked animal, the tissue is relatively 
much thicker and harder. The same is true of the fibre 
or bunches of fibrillae forming the muscles themselves, 
there being a thicker membrane covering the whole. To 
soften the cell walls in vegetable foods and render the 
product palatable and digestible, we subject the food 
to a long, slow cooking, as in cereals. In a similar man- 
ner we render tough meats tender, palatable, and digesti- 
ble. Different meats vary greatly in flavor. This is 
mainly due 10 either the kind or amount of extractives 
contained in the flesh. The muscular fibre of mutton and 
pork seems to have very little flavor. The characteristic 
taste is derived largely from the fat in each case. 

Any particular kind of meat has its best flavor when 
the animal from which it was made was of the best breed, 
at the most suitable age, and had been cared for and fed 
in the most perfect manner. The flesh of young animals 



MEAT— ITS USES AND ABUSES. 401 

is more tender but poorer in flavor than that from animals 
of mature age. In general, the flesh of the female is more 
delicate than that of the male. Animals which feed on 
fish usually have a disagreeable flavor. Fish are them- 
selves an exception to this rule. The proportion of nu- 
trients is smaller in fish than in meats, ordinarily, on ac- 
count of the large proportion of water which they contain. 
Chicken and turkey are rich in extractives, but poorer in 
fat than the fatter meats. They have a large amount 
of refuse, yet they furnish a goodly amount of 
protein. Meats are a food in which there is excellent 
opportunity for wasting. The bones and trimmings of 
meat, which are often thrown away, would aid in making 
a soup which would in turn help to prevent that worst 
of all wastefulness, overeating. So far as investigation 
has been made, meat seems to be quite well digested by 
most healthy persons. Raw beef has been found more 
easily digested than that which is cooked. Pork should 
always be eaten well done, because parasites are so often 
present in this meat. 

Roasted joints of all. meats take precedence over those 
which are boiled. Prof. Atwater says: "If it is desired 
to kill any organism in the inner portions of the cut of 
meat, the piece must be exposed for a long time to the 
action of heat. Ordinary methods of cooking are seldom 
sufficient. In a piece of meat weighing ten pounds, the 
temperature of the interior after boiling four hours was 
only 190 F. The inner temperature of meat when roast- 
ing has been observed to vary from 160 F. to 200 ° F., 
according to the size of the piece. In experiments on the 
canning of meats, it was found that when large and even 
small cans were kept for some time in a hot-water bath 
at a temperature considerably above the boiling point of 
water, the interior temperature of the meat rose only to 
208 ° F. in some cases, and to 165 F. in others. The 
larger cans are, of course, more likely to be imperfectly 
heated through to the center. 



402 HOUSEHOLD SCIENCE. 

The digestibility of meat is greatly influenced by the 
presence or absence of fat. Lean meat is, in general, more 
digestible than fat meat, but much depends upon the 
kind of fat, and the manner of its distribution. Mutton 
fat is more difficult of digestion than that found in beef. 
If the fat is mingled with the fibre of the meat, as in eel 
and lobster, the rate of digestibility is less rapid. One 
authority says that the white meat of the shad, with its 
greater freedom from incorporated fat, is nearly ten per 
cent, more digestible than the dark and fatter meat of the 
same fish. 

From time immemorial, man has desired meat as 
a part, at least, of his diet, unless debarred by a moral 
or religious belief. Drying was probably the method first 
used for preserving meats. This means of preservation 
is still used in the preparation of dried beef and summer 
sausages. Nutritive value is here sacrificed, to some ex- 
tent, for the sake of appearance. American meat is said 
to be salted before drying, which, of course, draws out 
some of the juices. It owes its red color partly to the 
action of the saltpeter, and in part to drying in the shade. 

A method of canning similar to that now in use was 
patented by Wertheimer in 1839. There is evidence that 
the art of preserving food by means of heat was known 
to the ancient Pompeiians, as sealed jars of perfectly pre- 
served figs have been found in the ruins. 

When put up in cans, meat retains both color and qual- 
ity. 

According to Prof. Atwater, "canned corned beef con- 
tains more protein pound for pound than fresh beef, and 
stands very high in fuel value." 

It is claimed that dried meat prepared in the best 
manner has lost none of its nutriment, but contains only 
about one-fourth of its original amount of water. Here 
as elsewhere in comparing its nutritive value with that of 
fresh meat, its digestibility would necessarily be consid- 
ered. The Mexicans still use a primitive method of dry- 



MEAT— ITS USES AND ABUSES. 403 

ing meat. The meat is hung over a slow fire and allowed 
to smoke and dry at the same time. Hunters and travel- 
ers in wild countries often "jerk" the meat they kill, us- 
ing green sticks which will not readily hum to hold it 
over the open camp fire. To so preserve it that it will 
keep long in hot weather, the meat must be cut thin and 
broiled until quite dry, and if thoroughly smoked, all the 
better. 

Farmers often preserve meat fresh for use during the 
winter months by freezing it. To preserve meat in this 
way, it is best to cut the meat at once into the cuts in 
which it is to be used. Pack these in snow, and set the 
vessel containing them in a room without fire. The meat 
is thus more readily handled when wanted for use, and 
loses less of its juice, as it is necessary to thaw only the 
amount needed for immediate use. So long as meat is 
kept frozen, it will remain fresh, but it must not be allow- 
ed to freeze and thaw. Greater skill is required to cook- 
frozen meats properly than those which have not been 
frozen, as the juices exude very readily when a piece of 
frozen meat thaws. All frozen meat should be thawed 
before cooking. It is best to set it in a covered vessel, and 
allow it to thaw slowly in a room where there is fire. 

Salt as a preserver of meats has long been in use. Its 
action on fresh raw meat is to draw out some of the 
juices, thus robbing the meat, not only of a part of the 
water, but taking out such other elements as the water 
with the salt is capable of dissolving. The tissues are 
on this account somewhat hardened. 

There are in common use several methods of preserving 
by means of salt. By one method, the meat is immersed 
in a strong salt solution called brine. Pork is the most 
readily preserved by the use of salt of any of the meats. 
A second method of using salt as a preservative is by 
packing the meat in dry salt, using only a sufficient quan- 
tity of salt to act as a preservative for a time, then com- 
pleting the operation by smoking. This gives a fine 



404 HOUSEHOLD SCIENCE. 

quality of meat, known as "country cured ham" and bacon, 
though the work is very perfectly done by meat-packing 
firms and by some local butchers. Saltpetre is sometimes 
used in small quantities with the salt to give the meat a 
finer color. The quality is now considered improved by 
this treatment, as it hardens the tissues. Soda is some- 
times used to overcome the hardening process. Borax is 
sometimes used also, as both it and saltpetre are believed 
to aid in preserving the meat. Borax and soda used in 
this way, even in small quantities, are considered detri- 
mental to health. Brine which has been once used is be- 
lieved to dissolve out a less amount of the juices of the 
meat than a fresh solution does. For this reason, farmers 
sometimes boil the brine used the previous year, cool, and 
use it again, but this process is hardly to be recommended, 
as a fresh brine seems to be more desirable on account 
of greater cleanliness. 

Under the name "meat extracts" we find a large num- 
ber of preparations. These might be roughly divided into 
four classes : ( i ) The true meat extracts, which con- 
tain little else than the flavoring matters of the meat from 
which they are made, in addition to such mineral salts as 
may be dissolved out. Such should contain no gelatine 
and no fat. They cannot, from their mode of making, 
contain any albumen. They are, consequently, merely 
stimulants, like tea, coffee, and other allied substances. 
(2) Beef broth and beef tea. These, as commonly pre- 
pared in the household, contain some fat, some protein, 
and have some food value, though the amount may be eas- 
ily overestimated. (3) Meat juices. These contain the juice 
extracted from meat by pressure. They usually contain 
some albumen. Preparations containing dried pulverized 
meat are called by the same name. These each have some 
food value. Preparations known as predigested food 
contain the soluble albuminoids, etc., which are obtained 
from the meat bv artificial digestion. These are in some 



MEAT— ITS USES AND ABUSES. 405 

cases really what they claim to be. The uses of any of 
these should be by competent medical advice. 

In addition to the meat proper, there are other por- 
tions of the animal which are known as "offal." In large 
packing houses, these parts are preserved and utilized. 
Hearts, livers, oxtails, and kidneys are used for food. 
Also the tongues of cattle, sheep, and pigs, as well as ox- 
lips, ox-palates, and sweetbreads. Also pigs' noses and 
pigs' feet. The lungs are rich in nitrogenous matter, and 
are used in some countries for food by mincing and com- 
bining with other meats. The blood is used to some ex- 
tent by the Germans in blood puddings and sausages. 
Caen, France, is noted for the manufacture of tripe. The 
offal generally contains less fat and about the same 
amount of mineral matter as the portions called "meat." 
Much of the remainder of the offal is used for some pur- 
pose. The skin is made into leather. Parts of the hoofs, 
bones, and horns are made into glue. The hoofs and 
horns proper are made into buttons, spoons, and other 
articles. Some of the intestines are cleansed and pre- 
served for sausage casings. The bladders are useful for 
packing putty. The bones make good fertilizers for the 
land, and are also useful in sugar refineries. The blood 
may be used in the refining of sugar or as a fertilizer. 
Pepsin is made from certain parts of the animal, as the 
stomach of the pig and the thyroid gland of the sheep. In 
small places, many of these materials are mostly waste, 
as there is not the means of at once making them into 
these final products. 

The American industry in salted and cured meats is 
very great. According to the official report for the fiscal 
year of 1892 to 1893, the American exports of bacon 
amounted to 397,000,000 pounds. Eighty-two million 
pounds of ham were exported, 53,000,000 pounds of salt 
pork, and 58,000,000 pounds of salted beef. The canning 
of meats is also extensively carried on. 

Our critics tell us that we eat as we live, — very rap- 



406 HOUSEHOLD SCIENCE. 

idly. Figures, which never lie, tell us that we con- 
sume meat and sugar in excessive quantities. In some lo- 
calities, at least, this is true. A one-sided diet never fails 
to bring evil results. 

We, as a nation, boast that we can make an American 
of any foreigner who chooses to make his home among 
us. Let us then pay more heed to our manner of living, 
and hasten the time when we can say that the native 
American is a model man, physically, mentally, and mor- 
ally. We study wise feeding in the care of stock, but 
hear what one writer says of us : "It is not surprising 
that the Americans are coming to be known as a race 
of dyspeptics when we consider their universal ignorance 
of the uses of foods and the needs of the human body." 

References: U. S. Dept. AgT. , Office Exp. Stations, 
Bulletin No. 102; U. S. Dept. Agr., Office Exp. Stations, 
Bulletin No. 34. 



CHAPTER XXX. 

FOODS AND DIET. 

Food is that which, when taken into the body, repairs 
waste, forms tissue, or yields energy in the form of heat 
and muscular power. Most food material contains a 
portion which is non-edible in addition to the nutrients. 
In fish, the bone and skin form the non-edible portion ; 
in eggs, the shell ; in meat, the bone, — and so on. Foods 
present a great variety of appearances and flavors, but 
chemical analyses show that each one is composed of a 
portion or all of the following compounds : Protein, fats, 
carbohydrates, and mineral matter. Water is usually 
present in food, and while not classed among nutrients, 
is absolutely necessary in the body, because it carries the 
nutrients, and, as it bathes the different tissues, each ap- 
propriates to itself such nutrients as are needed for re- 
pairs or growth. 

The nutrients are made up of the following elements : 
Nitrogen, carbon, oxygen, hydrogen, phosphorus, sul- 
phur, calcium, magnesium, sodium, potassium, silicon, 
chlorin, fluorine, and iron. 

Probably no single nutrient contains all of these. Of the 
nutrients named above, protein alone supplies nitrogen to 
the body, and it is therefore necessary that we take food 
containing some protein, as the muscular tissues and the 
fluids of the body need it for repairs and growth. Protein 
is capable of forming fatty tissues, and can be used to pro- 
duce heat and energy, but it is not wise to use it so, because 
this entails unnecessary work on the organs, thus, in time, 
often causing disease. Protein is also more expensive 
than fats and carbohydrates, which should be used for pro- 
producing heat and energy. Mineral matter is the only 



408 HOUSEHOLD SCIENCE. 

nutrient which cannot supply carbon, hydrogen, and oxy- 
gen to the body. 

Classification of Foods. 

Foods may be classed, with reference to their origin, 
as animal foods and vegetable foods. The principal ani- 
mal foods are eggs, meats (including fish of all kinds, 
poultry, and game), milk, and cheese. Vegetable foods 
include all edibles commonly called "vegetables," as well 
as nuts and fruits. Animal foods are in general richer in 
protein, easier of digestion, and higher in price than veg- 
etable foods, though there are some exceptions to this rule. 
Milk, cheese, and the cheaper cuts of meat are inexpensive 
sources of protein food, and when properly prepared are 
well assimilated, though tough meats and all kinds of 
cheese require careful preparation. 

Vegetable foods in general contain a small amount of 
nutritive material in proportion to their bulk. Legumes, 
such as peas, beans, and lentils, are an exception to this 
rule. Cereals are also rich in protein, starch and fat. Veg- 
etables and milk are especially valuable in giving needed 
bulk to the food, and many fruits and young vegetables aid 
digestion much by furnishing needed acids and mineral 
matters. Almost all animal and vegetable foods furnish 
some mineral matter, but milk and cereals are especially 
valuable in this way. Water is also a source of mineral 
matter. 

Fat is derived from both the animal and the vegetable 
kingdoms, — as the fat of meat, milk, etc. Its chief source 
among vegetables is nuts, as the peanut, walnut, etc. ; 
fruits, as the olive ; and grains, as corn and wheat. 

With reference to their use in the body, foods may be 
classed as protein foods, — as eggs, meat, milk, etc. ; carbo- 
hydrate foods, — as rice, potatoes, etc. ; and fatty foods, — 
as pork, butter, etr. 



FOODS AND DIET. 409 

Classification of Nutrients. 

The following is from Bulletin No. 21, U. S. Dept. Agr., 
"Chemistry and Economy of Foods." 

"The following familiar examples of compounds, com- 
monly grouped with each of the four principal classes of 
nutrients, will serve to define the terms as here used, and 
may perhaps help to avoid the confusion which unfortun- 
ately results from the variations in usage by different wri- 
ters. 

"Proteids : Albuminoids, e. g., albumen of eggs ; 
myosin, the basis of muscle (lean meat) ; the albumin- 
oids which make up the gluten of wheat. Gelantin- 
oids, e. g., constituents of connective tissue which yield 
gelatine and allied substances, e. g., collagen of tendon, 
ossein of bone. 
£; "Nitrogenous extractives of flesh, i. e., of meats and 
g fish. These include kreatin and allied compounds, and 
9 are the chief ingredients of beef tea and most meat ex- 
ft tracts. 

"Amids : This term is frequently applied to the ni- 
trogenous non-albuminoid compounds of vegetable 
foods and feeding stuff's, among which are amido acids, 
such as aspartic acid and asparagin. Some of them are 
more or less allied in chemical constitution to the nitro- 
genous extractives of flesh. 

"Fats : Fat of meat, fat of milk, oil of corn, wheat, 
etc., the ingredients of the "ether extract" of animal or 
vegetable foods and feeding stuffs, which it is customary 
to group together roughly as 'fats,' include, with the true 
fats, various other substances, lecithens and chlorophylls. 
"Carbohydrates : Sugar, starch, celluloses, gums, 
woody fiber, etc. 

"Mineral matters : Potassium, sodium, calcium, and 
magnesium chlorides, sulphates, and phosphates. 
Uses of Food— Functions of Nutrients. 

The two chief uses of the food of animals are, first, 
to form the material of the body, and to repair its waste ; 



410 HOUSEHOLD SCIENCE. 

and, second, to yield energy in the form of (i) heat to 
keep the body warm, and (2) muscular and other power 
for the work it has to do. 

"In forming the tissues and fluids of the body, the food 
serves for building and repairing. In yielding energy, it 
serves as fuel for yielding heat and power. 

"The different nutrients of food act in different ways in 
fulfilling these purposes. The principal tissue formers 
are the albuminoids. These form the frame work of the 
body. They build and repair the nitrogenous materials, 
as those of muscle, tendon, and bone, and supply the al- 
buminoids of blood, milk, and other fluids. 

"The chief fuel ingredients of the food are the carbo- 
hydrates and fats. These are either consumed in the body, 
or are stored as fat, to be used as occasion demands. 

Building and Repair— Functions of the Protein Compounds. 

"The albuminoids are the building material for the. body. 
The bodily machine is made from them, but in the making 
of the machine the albuminoids remain partly albuminoids, 
and are partly changed to gelatinoids, so that the ma- 
chine, as built, consists of both albuminoids and gela- 
tinoids. The gelatinoids cannot, according to the best evi- 
dence now at hand, be transformed into albuminoids, but 
they do serve to protect the albuminoids from being con- 
sumed. Both albuminoids and gelatinoids, after they have 
served as building material, can be broken up and oxidized 
within the body. In this cleavage and oxidation, they 
serve as fuel. 

"The nitrogenous extractives can neither build tissue 
nor serve as fuel, but they are useful otherwise. Just how 
they are useful is not yet fully explained, but they appear 
to exert some influence upon the nervous system to act as 
stimulants, and thus to help the body to make use of other 
materials in its nourishment." 



FOODS AND DIET. 



411 



Carbohydrates. 

Chief among carbohydrates are the sugars and starches. 
These contain the three elements, carbon, hydrogen, and 
oxygen, and, in common with other carbohydrates, fur- 
nish heat and energy to the body. Their chemical formu- 
lae are somewhat different. Glucose, grape sugar, and 
levulose, or fruit sugar, have six atoms of carbon, twelve 
atoms of hydrogen, and six atoms of oxygen. Cane 
sugar and milk sugar have each twelve atoms of carbon, 
twenty-two atoms of hydrogen, and eleven atoms of 




Sugur Cane and Sugar Beets. 

oxygen. The starches have six atoms of carbon, ten 
atoms of hydrogen, and six atoms of oxygen. Cane sugar 
is that derived from juices of plants ; the sugar cane and 
sugar beet being the principal sources of this variety. The 
sugar beet furnishes about two-thirds of the sugar of 
commerce, and the sugar cane a little more than one- 
third. The sugar from either one of these two sources is 
called "cane sugar," or, more properly, "sucrose." 

U. S. Dept. Agr., Farmers' Bulletin No. 93, makes the 
following statement: "By no chemical test can pure 
crystallized saccharose or cane sugar from the different 



412 HOUSEHOLD SCIENCE. 

sources be distinguished. It is often asserted that beet 
sugar has less sweetening power, or that fruits preserved 
with it do not keep so well, but this can only be true of 
specimens that have been imperfectly purified. Methods 
of refining raw sugar have been so improved in the last 
few years that it may be truly said that few food sub- 
stances are so nearly pure chemically as the best granu- 
lated or lump sugar. 

" 'Loaf sugar is,' Blythe says, 'as a rule, chemically 
pure. It is probably, indeed, the purest of all substances 
in commerce. The only sugars that may be impure are the 
raw sugars.' " 

Cane sugar is so cheap at present that it is seldom adul- 
terated. Low-priced sugars showing an almost white 
color often contain a very large per cent, of water, owing 
to the way they are treated in the vacuum pan. More 
sweetening can usually be bought for a given sum in the 
higher-priced, pure-white sugars, because they are drier. 

Maple sugar, on account of its peculiar and pleasant 
flavor, is very much higher in price than the same amount 
of saccharine matter in common sugar. This leads to the 
belief that it is adulterated, but since it is one of the group 
of cane sugars, it is difficult to detect adulteration. It is 
generally believed, however, that a large part of the maple 
sugar of commerce is made from glucose, with enough 
maple sugar added to give to it the maple flavor. This 
flavor is also imparted to syrups by the use of an extract 
of hickory bark. 

The use of glucose as an adulteration has several advan- 
tages over preparations of bark mixtures. It is cheap, 
wholesome, and gives syrup a good body and a light color. 
No syrup should contain glucose unless distinctly so mark- 
ed. Glucose has a much lower sweetening power than 
cane sugar. The glucose of commerce is largely a by- 
product from the starch manufactories. A glucose food 
is very similar to a starch food partially digested. Glu- 
cose is verv largelv used in the adulteration of honev- Ex- 



FOODS AND DIET. 



413 



tracted honey may be pure, or it may be glucose with just 
enough of the genuine article to disguise it, so far as sight 
and taste can discover, but by chemical means any adulter- 
ation can easily be detected. Cane sugar is not extensive- 




Sorghum Plant. 

ly employed to adulterate honey, because it tends to crys- 
tallize readily. 

The Coloring of Sugar. 

*"White and yellow sugar usually receives a special 
treatment, either in the vacuum pan or the centrifugal, in 
*U. S. Dept. Agr., Division of Chemistry, Bulletin No. 13. 



414 HOUSEHOLD SCIENCE. 

order to prevent a grayordead appearance. In the case of 
white sugar, blue ultramarine is the substance usually em- 
ployed for this purpose. The coloring matter is suspended 
in water, and is applied as a final wash in the centrifugal 
immediately before stopping the machine. This process 
is termed 'bluing.' A very small amount of the color ad- 
heres to the crystals, giving the sugar a whiter and bright- 
er appearance. Some sugar makers suspend a small 
amount of ultramarine in the water, and drain it into the 
vacuum pan a few minutes before the strike is finished. 
In addition to this treatment in the pan, the sugar is also 
blued in the centrifugal. It is not unusual to find sugars 
which have been excessively blued, and which, on solu- 
tion, yield a blue syrup. Fortunately ultramarine is not 
poisonous, and no injury to health can result from its 
use." 

Digestibility of Foods. 

The value of a food depends partly on the amount of 
nutritive material it contains, and partly on whether the 
nutrients are in such form that they can be made use of by 
the body. Some foods are more easily digested and as- 
similated when raw than when cooked, as ripe fruits, 
melons, lettuce, cabbage, etc. Meat and white of egg are 
in many cases more easily, used by the body when taken 
raw, but they have a better flavor when cooked. Most 
foods lose something both in flavor and food value by 
cooking, if they are perfectly palatable and wholesome 
raw. 

Some protein foods are digested largely in the stomach, 
where the gastric juice dissolves the insoluble materials, 
and renders them capable of entering the circulation, to 
be carried to such parts of the body as need them. Others 
are digested largely in the lower part of the digestive tract, 
where the pancreatic juice performs a work similar to that 
done by the gastric juice in the stomach. Protein foods of 
vegetable origin are usually more difficult of digestion 



FOODS AND DIET. 415 

than those of animal origin, and many require cooking to 
render them fit for human food at all. Vegetable protein, 
as found in beans, peas, cereals, etc., is mixed with starch 
and cellulose, so that neither the flavor nor the food value 
is perfect unless thoroughly cooked. 

Both sugars and starches, when taken in excess of what 
is needed to furnish the heat and energy required by the 
body, tend to lay on fat. A man doing hard work in the 
open air can assimilate much larger quantities of sugar 
than one of indoor life and sedentary habits. Sugar is 
generally regarded as adapted to the sick only in small 
quantities. 

It is believed that sugar is more easily digestible when 
taken in liquids, as tea, coffee, and water, than in cake or 
other such food. A sufficient number of analyses have not 
been made, however, to prove this conclusively. Sugar, 
like butter, is highly prized for its agreeable flavor, and 
while starchy foods alone might furnish sufficient carbo- 
hydrates, the use of sugar in many cooked dishes is abso- 
lutely necessary to their palatability. There is, however, 
no excuse for eating sugar in sufficient quantities to injure 
the health. 

ABUSE OF FOODS. 

The oft-repeated words of Sir Henry Thompson must 
be heard many times more before we are all free from the 
evils here spoken of: "I have come to the conclusion that 
more than half of the disease that embitters the middle 
and latter part of life is due to avoidable errors in diet and 
that more mischief in the form of actual disease, of im- 
paired vigor, and of shortened life accrues to civilized 
man in England and throughout central Europe from er- 
ronous habits of eating than from the habitual use of al- 
coholic drink, considerable as I know that habit to be. 
Speaking in general terms, man seems at the present time 
prone to choose foods which are unnecessarily concen- 



416 HOUSEHOLD SCIENCE. 

trated, and too rich in nitrogenous or flesh-forming ma- 
terials, and to consume more in quantity than is necessary 
for the healthy performance of the animal functions. Sick 
headaches and bilious attacks pursue their victims through 
half a lifetime, to be exchanged for gout, or worse, at or 
before climacteric, and so common are these evils that they 
are regarded by people in general as a necessary append- 
age of poor humanity. No notion can be more erroneous, 
since it is absolutely true that the complaints referred to 
are self-engendered, form no part of our physical nature, 
and for their existence are dependent almost entirely on 
our habits in relation to food and drink. As a rule, man 
has little knowledge of, or interest in, the processes by 
which food is prepared for the table. Until a tolerably 
high standard of civilization is reached, he cares more for 
quantity than quality, desires little variety, and regards 
as impertinent an innovation in the shape of a new aliment, 
expecting the same food at the same hour daily." 

This celebrated English physician intimates that after 
a high degree of civilization has been reached human be- 
ings prefer quality to quantity, and enjoy variety at dif- 
ferent meals. According to the above statements, — and 
who can gainsay them? — the health and happiness of the 
people of America depend largely upon the wives and 
daughters in the different families. If, as we attend to 
selecting and preparing the food for daily meals, we can 
feel that we are accomplishing as much as can be done in 
any other way to insure health and happiness, we will cer- 
tainly consider housekeeping a very exalted occupation. 

Every one knows that the unused muscles of the body 
become weak and flabby, and that exercise which is too 
severe, if long continued, shows deleterious results. A 
person may be scrupulously neat and clean, and take just 
the proper amount of exercise in the open air, but he will 
not have well-developed muscles, and there will not be the 
glow of health on his face. He will not have the power- 
ful mind nature gave him the material for forming unless 



FOODS AND DIET. 417 

he so regulates his food and drink as to give all the in- 
ternal organs regular exercise in proper amount. The di- 
gestive organs are just as certainly dwarfed by lack of ex- 
ercise, and weakened by undue exercise, as the muscles 
on the outside of the body are. 

It is not best that all foods be made just as easily digest- 
ible as possible. Such a course would impair the digestive 
organs by giving them too little work. On the other hand, 
no one would think of giving the family raw potatoes. 
This would be the other extreme. If there is an invalid 
in the family who needs predigested food, prepare special 
dishes for him for a time. Let him take a little of the 
normal food at each meal, if possible, and thereby grad- 
ually strengthen his weakened powers. 

Every women who has catered to a large family knows 
how hard it is to prepare at each meal extra dishes, month 
after month, and year after year; but there is no better 
way. If the diet for the family is made to coincide with 
the requirements of the invalid, there will sooner or later 
be a family of invalids. 

There is no better way of avoiding the excessive use of 
one sort of food than by varying the kinds served at dif- 
ferent meals. Take, for example, meat which, when eaten 
in excess, produces very deleterious results. Instead of 
preparing meat for every meal, let eggs in some of the 
many ways in which they may be cooked, or eggs and 
cheese, which are so delicious, take their place. Use cod- 
fish or some other fish and there will probably not be a 
greater quantity consumed than the organs can care for. 
Children can often be kept from consuming one food 
in excess by serving a moderate quantity, and then giving 
them something else, and serving the first again after they 
have almost satisfied the appetite. 

"As Heaven is not reached in a single bound, but we 
build the ladder by which we rise," so each housewife, in- 
stead of being discouraged by the many uncontrollable cir- 



418 HOUSEHOLD SCIENCE. 

cumstances, should study the needs and idiosyncrasies 
of the different members of her family, and little by little 
help to make it impossible to call the American people a 
race of dyspeptics. 

For a picked-up dinner, a soup containing considerable 
nutrition would be appropriate, as a puree of peas, or 
lentils, or a milk soup of some kind. A meat soup contains 
some little nutrition, but very little even when not accom- 
panied by any cereal, as it has in it more or less protein, 
some gelatine, and some fat. Of course the use of a well- 
cooked cereal or nice soup sticks give an additional amount 
of nutriment. 

Soup at the beginning of the meal serves two purposes : 
It is capable of furnishing more or less nutrition in an 
easily assimilated form. It in a measure quiets the nerves, 
allays the feeling of extreme hunger, and places one in a 
pleasant state of mind for enjoying his meal. With a 
simple broth nothing is needed, and it is better served 
without any addition when there is sufficient nutriment 
without this, as it gives opportunity for greater variety 
when it is needed. Soup sticks or a cereal, as rice, barley, 
or a paste of some kind, are nice with broth. For a dinner, 
the roast is supposed to give a sufficient amount of pro- 
tein, and a light soup is best. When fish is used in a sim- 
ple family dinner, the soup should be omitted. Let the 
vegetables which accompany the roast be such as are most 
palatable with it and with the soup. With mutton, tur- 
nips, sweet potatoes, cauliflower, rice, etc., taste well. 
They furnish the bulk of the carbohydrate (with potatoes) 
which the mutton, rich in protein, needs. It would no 
doubt be well for us to serve acid fruits with meats more 
than we do. With roast mutton, currant jelly, apple sauce 
or baked apples are very appetizing. Either apple sauce 
or baked apples are an addition to roast pork. These not 
only gratify the palate, but they furnish the system some 
of the acids which its welfare demands. When but two 
courses are used in a dinner, let those two be the roast, 



POODS AND DIET. 419 

with its accompanying vegetables, and a salad. The 
system needs the vegetable as well as the fruit acids to 
keep it in a healthful condition. It would often be better 
for the family to dispense almost wholly with desserts, 
except that fruit or some light form of dessert may be 
used. Pies and puddings are very fruitful causes of the 
pernicious habit of overeating. In a lunch in I which a bean 
or lentil soup is used, tomatoes are a very acceptable veg- 
etable. They are pleasant with soup, and furnish the 
needed acid. 

Broiled chicken, watercress, and creamed potatoes al- 
most make the mouth water at their mere mention, so 
plainly do they show that such a combination is the work 
of an artist. Onions seem to give to pork what it lacks 
in flavor. With turkey or chicken, stewed peaches, brown- 
ed apples, or apple sauce may occasionally take the place 
of the accustomed cranberry sauce with good effect. With 
chicken or turkey, many vegetables harmonize well, as to- 
matoes, corn, sweet potatoes, hubbard squash, cold slaw, 
etc. Squash and corn, squash and peas, squash and beets 
should not appear on the bill of fare together. 

In combining foods to suit the taste, we wish to produce 
a pleasing harmony or a happy contrast. Sliced cooked 
carrots, seasoned with salt, pepper, and vinegar, may be 
used with broiled fish, instead of sliced cucumbers, for the 
sake of variety. A little onion mixed with sliced cucum- 
bers gives them a pleasing flavor. Many of these combina- 
tions cannot be made by the farmer's wife or daughter 
unless she can have the variety of foods to work with. 
The farmer has much to do with the cooking, and es- 
pecially with the combination of foods. With the modern 
horse garden tools, and with the knowledge of good hardy 
and large yielding varieties of vegetables, berries, and 
other fruits which are now in reach of most farmers, there 
is no good excuse for such a lack of variety of foods as is : 
sometimes found. These implements and better varieties, 
and this available knowledge of gardening, have greatly 



420 HOUSEHOLD SCIENCE 

cheapened the price of vegetables and fruits to the town 
people. Gardens properly planted in rows, and cultivated 
largely with horse tools, will cheapen the berries and other 
luxurious necessities from the garden. Twenty dollars 
expended in a horse hoe, a hand wheel hoe, a garden seed 
drill, and a few good books on vegetables and fruit grow- 
ing, is ofttimes a better investment than a new grain bind- 
er, or even a threshing outfit. Always remember the 
garden, the need of a reasonable variety of food, and the 
weary woman who tries to make appetizing meals on the 
wheat farm, before spreading out on more land to be cov- 
ered with mortgages and weeds. 

The housewife on the farm finds it difficult to have much 
fresh meat during the summer, as she is often at some dis- 
tance from the market. In winter it is an easy matter to 
have plenty of it at home, and she is not dependent on the 
market. On the farm during the summer there are plenty 
of nice salted meats of all kinds. Fresh-laid eggs are 
abundant. No one has better young chickens or finer- 
flavored fowls. There is plenty of pure sweet milk and 
golden June butter. A little codfish and salted fish in the 
storeroom leaves nothing to be desired in the line of meat. 
If the housewife has a good garden, plenty of small friuts, 
and a well-laden orchard, she needs just one thing more to 
enable her to feed her family in the most approved style, 
and that is an abundance of physical strength. For she 
has not only to provide for the present needs, but, like 
the ant, she must prepare for the winter that surely will 
come, when fruits and vegetables will be needed to give 
bulk to the otherwise too-concentrated diet. 

References: U. S. Dept. Agr., Farmers' Bulletin No. 23, 
pp. 6-8, 12, 15; Univ. Minn., Chemical Division, Bulletin No. 54, 
p. 68; Feeds & Feeding — Henry — pp. 40, 41; U. S. Dept. Agr., 
Farmers' Bulletin No. 121; Food and Its Functions — James 
Knight; Disorders of Digestion — Dr. Burdon Sanderson. For 
a treatise on therapeutics, see Gilman Thompson's Food Dietet- 
ics, U. S. Dept. Agriculture, Division of Chemistry, Bulletin 
No. 13. 



CHAPTER XXXI. 



CAKE MAKING. 



The two principal kinds of cake are sponge cake and 
butter cake. Butter cakes should be well beaten in the 
making - , as this renders them lighter and finer grained, 
and they require less soda or baking powder. Sponge cake 
should not be beaten, or it will be close and tough. Pastry 




Utensils Used in Cake Making. 

flour should be used for both kinds of cake, as they will be 
more tender. When intending" to bake cake, see that the 
fire is so arranged that the heat will be right, get materials 
and utensils on the table near where you will work. When 
making any cake, sift flour and sugar before measuring. 
Fine granulated sugar is better than coarse. Measure all 
the ingredients except the extract before you begin to 
work. When baking powder is used, save out a little 
flour, and mix the powder with it. When soda is used, 
mix with a little flour and put in same as baking powder. 
A thin butter cake will bake in twenty to twenty-five 
minutes. If thicker, bake longer, but not too long, so as 



422 HOUSEHOLD SCIENCE. 

to shrink too much. Fruit cakes should bake two or three 
hours. They are better steamed. 

When creaming butter for cake, stir until soft and pli- 
able before adding any sugar. The creaming will thus re- 
quire much less labor and time. 

When eggs are used, measure instead of counting, for 
eggs vary so much in size that you have not always the 
same amount, if by count. If you wish a light and feath- 
ery mass, as in angel or sponge cake, beat the whites of 
the eggs with an egg whip of some kind. If you wish 
the mixture to be light, fine grained, and delicate, use the 
dover beater on both yolk and white. Always beat the 
yolk until thick and lemon colored. 

It is well for the amateur to protect bottom and sides of 
a cake with a greased white paper lining in the pan, as 
this prevents a too hot fire having so deleterious effects. A 
bed of sand or a thick paper under the cake aids in this. 

The usual proportions in cakes are one part butter, one 
part milk, two parts sugar, and four parts flour. Too 
much sugar, too much butter, or too little flour will give a 
heavy cake. 

To Make a Butter Cake. 

First measure the sifted flour and sugar. Wipe the 
measure, and measure the eggs, pour them out, and meas- 
ure the butter. Have baking powder in a little flour. Stir 
the butter until soft and pliable before adding any sugar, 
then beat the sugar in a little at a time. Stir until very 
white and creamy. If there is more than twice as much 
sugar as butter, beat a part of the sugar with the egg 
yolks. Beat the yolks of the eggs until thick and lemon 
colored, then put with the creamed butter and sugar, and 
beat the two together. Add a little liquid, and beat until 
thoroughly incorporated, then add a little flour, beat that 
in, and alternate thus until all is used. Add the flavoring, 
and beat that in. Then with a clean beater beat the egg 
whites stiff, but not dry. Be sure that there is no yolk in 



CAKE MAKING. 423 

the white, as it will not beat well if there is. Keep eggs 
cold for beating. Beat in the baking powder, then fold 
the whites in. If the oven is too hot at the bottom set the 
cake pan on a little salt or sand. Have the oven a mod- 
erate heat. Leave the cakes in the pan until cooled some. 
The whole eggs unbeaten may be put into the cake one 
at a time after the flour and milk have been thoroughly 
beaten together. After adding each egg to the dough 
carefully stir it in and beat until thoroughly incorporated 
before adding the next. This manner of putting in the 
eggs gives a fine-grained, light, moist cake. 

Butter Cake— For Class Work. 

One-half cup of sugar, one-fourth cup butter, one- 
fourth cup of milk or water, one-half teaspoonful of bak- 
ing powder, three-fourths cup of flour, one egg, one tea- 
spoonful (scant) of flavoring. 

Butter Cake— For Home Work. 

One cup of sugar, one-half cup of butter, one-half cup 
of milk or water, one teaspoonful of baking powder 
(level), one and one-half cups of flour, two eggs. Put 
together and bake as directed for making butter cake. 

Plain Cake. 

One cup of milk, one cup of butter, two cups of sugar, 
three cups of flour, four eggs. Put together the same 
as directed for butter cakes in general. These proportions 
can be used for any plain cake. 

Yolk Cake With Water. 

Five egg yolks, three-fourths cup of sugar, one-half 
cup of butter, one-half cup of water, one teaspoonful bak- 
ing powder, two cups very soft flour, one teaspoonful ex- 
tract of lemon. Put together as any butter cake. If 
bread flour is used, take less. 



424 HOUSEHOLD SCIENCE. 

Gold Cake. 

One and one-half cups of flour, one-half cup of sweet 
milk, one cup of sugar, one-half cup of butter, one tea- 
spoonful of baking powder, yolks of four eggs, one tea- 
spoonful of extract of vanilla; beat the yolks of eggs 
with dover beater until thick and lemon-colored. Cream 
the butter and sugar by first stirring the butter until soft, 
then add the sugar, a little at a time, and beat until the 
whole becomes very white. Add the milk and flour alter- 
nately, a little at a time, thoroughly incorporating each 
addition of milk or flour before adding the next. Add 
the extract and beat in thoroughly, then add the baking 
powder mixed with two tablespoonfuls of flour, which 
have been saved out for the purpose. Lastly, fold the 
beaten yolks into the mixture, put into pan and bake. 

Silver Cake. 

One and one-half cups of flour, one-half cup of sweet 
milk, one cup of sugar, one-half cup of butter, one tea- 
spoonful of baking powder, four egg whites, one tea- 
spoonful of extract of lemon. Put together same as gold 
cake. 

Joe's Sponge Cake. 

One cup of sugar, one cup of flour, one teaspoonful of 
baking powder, one-half cup of cold water (scant), one- 
fourth teaspoonful of salt, one teaspoonful of flavoring, 
four egg whites, three yolks. Beat the yolks slightly, and 
add the sugar. Then beat until light. Add the flour and 
water alternately, and fold in the beaten whites. Bake 
forty minutes in a slow oven. 

Sponge Cake — Mrs. Caldwell. 

One-half cup of fine granulated or pulverized sugar, 
one-half cup of pastry flour, three eggs. Whip the whites 
of the eggs, and when they are about half beaten sitt in 
one-third of a tablespoonful of cream of tartar, and con- 
tinue beating until the eggs are very stiff, sift in the sugar. 



CAKE MAKING. 425 

Add the yolks beaten light and creamy. Sift and fold the 
flour in very lightly. Bake in a very slow oven. 

Water Sponge Cake. 

Yolks of eleven eggs, one and one-half cups of granu- 
lated sugar, one cup of cold water, one teaspoonful of 
mixed flavoring (one-half lemon and one-half vanilla), 
three cups of flour, sifted, three level teaspoonfuls of bak- 
ing powder. The object in making this cake is to use the 
yolks left from making angel cake. Bake in a rather cool 
oven. 

Sponge Cake — Mrs. Ewing. 

Weigh ten eggs. Take equal weight of sugar, finely 
granulated preferred. One-half as much by weight of 
flour as sugar. Juice of one lemon with most of peel 
grated. Beat eggs separately. Leave out two of the 
yolks. Beat yolks as light as possible, add to them the 
lemon juice, and about two-thirds of the sugar, and into 
this stir the flour. Beat the whites very light, and add to 
them the remainder of the sugar, fold this into the mixture 
of yolks, lemon juice, and flour. Bake in a slow oven 
forty-five minutes or more. 

Angel Cake — For Home Work. 

One cup white of egg, one cup winter wheat flour, one 
and one-fourth cups of fine granulated sugar, one level 
teaspoonful of cream of tartar, one teaspoonful of almond 
extract. Eggs vary so much in size that it is better to 
take a certain measure of the white than a definite num- 
ber of eggs. Put the measured whites in an earthen 
bowl, break lightly with an egg whip, sift in the cream 
of tartar, and beat until the eggs will cling to the bowl 
and not slip out if the bowl is turned upside down. Add 
the extract. Then fold sugar and flour, which have been 
sifted together, into the egg, sifting it in gradually, and 
stirring only enough to combine it with the egg. Put 
the mixture in an ungreased pan, the bottom of which has 
been covered with white paper, place carefully in an oven 



426 HOUSEHOLD SCIENCE. 

of moderate temperature, and cover with a baking sheet 
or tin, so as to protect the top of the cake, but not exclude 
the air. Remove the cover in half an hour, when the 
cake should be perfectly risen, and bake half an hour 
longer. When taken from the oven, turn the pan bottom 
upwards, and if it has no legs, rest it upon cups or bowls 
until the cake is perfectly cold. Then remove by slip- 
ping a thin-bladed knife between the cake and the sides of 
the pan. Success in making angel cake depends largely 
upon having an oven of the proper temperature. If the 
oven is too warm, the cake will be tough. 

Angel Cake — For Class Work. 

One-fourth cup of flour, one-fourth cup of sugar, and 
one tablespoonful more, one-fourth teaspoonful of cream 
of tartar, one-fourth cup of egg white, one-fourth tea- 
spoonful of extract of almond. Put together same as 
larger rule. Bake in very slow oven. 

Cream Cake or Roll Cake — For Class Work. 

Scant two-thirds of a cup of sugar, generous two- 
thirds of a cup of flour, two medium-sized eggs, two- 
thirds of a teaspoonful of baking powder, two tablespoon- 
fuls of water (cold), one-eighth of a tablespoonful of 
salt, four drops of flavoring. 

Beat the eggs with a dover beater until thick and lemon 
colored, add two-thirds of a cup of sugar, and beat with a 
spoon until well mixed ; then add flour, in which is sifted 
the baking powder and salt; then add the flavoring, and 
two tablespoonfuls of cold water. Stir until well mixed. 
Bake in a moderate oven. 

Cream Cake or Roll Cake — For Home Work. 

Beat three eggs until very light, then add one cup of 
sugar (scant), and stir until well mixed. Then add a 
cup of flour, minus one tablespoonful, and, when mixed, 
add three tablespoonfuls of cold water. Lastly add the 
tablespoonful of flour, plus two teaspoonfuls of baking 
powder, and stir until mixed. Flavor with one teaspoon- 



CAKE MAKING. 427 

ful of lemon or vanilla. Bake in greased papered pans in 
an oven a little hotter than for sponge cake. If for cream 
cake, bake in pie tins in three layers, but if for roll cake, 
bake in a large pan in one layer, making a thin sheet. 

Filling for Cream or Roll Cake. 

One cup of milk, one egg, two tablespoonfuls of corn- 
starch, one tablespoonful of granulated sugar. Put the 
cornstarch into a bowl, and mix it with one-fourth of a 
cup of the milk, pouring on a little at a time, to prevent 
lumping. Heat the remainder of the milk, and add to the 
cornstarch mixture. Return to the saucepan and cook 
five minutes after it reaches the boiling point, stirring 
constantly. When done, add it to the egg yolk, pouring 
slowly, and stirring well to insure a smooth mixture. Re- 
turn to the fire, let reach the boiling point, and pour over 
the egg whites and sugar beaten together. Mix well and 
add to the cake when cool enough not to soak. Turn the 
cake when done onto a board dusted with powdered 
sugar. With a sharp knife trim a narrow strip from each 
edge, cover with the filling, and roll. Wrap a narrow, 
white cloth about the cake to hold it in place until it cools. 

Whipped cream, sweetened and flavored, may be used, 
and is far better for cream cake than the fillings. 

Sunshine Cake. 

One teaspoonful of cream of tartar, three-fourths of a 
cup of egg white, one-fourth of a cup of egg yolk, one 
cup of flour and one-fourth teaspoonful of salt, one cup 
of sugar, one teaspoonful of extract of lemon and vanilla 
in equal parts. Beat the egg yolks until stiff and lemon- 
colored and add the flavoring. Add the cream of tartar 
and salt to the egg white and beat until stiff, but not dry, 
then fold white and yolk carefully together. Fold the 
sugar and flour, which have been sifted together, into this 
egg mixture and bake forty-five minutes in a slow oven. 
Keep the cake covered during the first twenty minutes. It 
should be well risen in twenty minutes, but browned lit- 



428 HOUSEHOLD SCIENCE. 

tie. To prepare a pan for sunshine or angel cake wipe 
out well and fit a white paper over the bottom, but leave 
the pan without grease. When the cake is done, turn the 
pan upside down on a support which just touches the 
edges of the pan and allow to cool. If done, it will not 
fall from the pan, and is lighter for hanging so. 

Sunshine Cake— Class Rule. 

One-fourth cup of egg, one yolk, the rest white, one- 
fourth cup of sugar, one-fourth cup of flour, one-fourth 
teaspoonful of cream of tartar, a dust of salt, four drops 
of lemon and vanilla extract in equal parts. Make and 
bake same as directed for sunshine cake. 

Cottage Pudding Class Rule. 

Flour one-half a cup, less two tablespoonfuls, soda 
one-eighth of a teaspoonful, salt one-eighth of a teaspoon- 
ful, one-half of a beaten egg, three tablespoonfuls of su- 
gar, two teaspoonfuls of butter (melted), one-fourth cup 
of sour milk, two drops of lemon extract. Put the milk, 
salt, melted butter and sugar into a bowl, add the flour, a 
little at a time, beating well, then the egg, and beat well, 
then the extract, and put into a buttered baking tin. Bake 
twenty to twenty-five minutes. 

Cottage Pudding— Home Rule. 

Flour two cups, soda one-half teaspoonful, two small 
eggs, or one large one, two-thirds of a cupful of sugar, 
one cup of sour milk and three tablespoonfuls of melted 
butter. Put together same as in Class Rule. 

White Cake. 

One cup of cold water, three and one-half cups of 
pastry flour, or three cups of bread flour, three-fourths of 
a cup of egg white, one-half cup of butter (scant), three 
level teaspoonsfuls of baking powder, one teaspoonful of 
extract of lemon. Cream the butter and then add the 
sugar a little at a time and cream the two together. Add 
the water and flour alternately, incorporating the one be- 



CAKE MAKING. 429 

fore adding the next. Add the baking powder with the 
last of the flour, then stir the extract into the mixture, and 
lastly fold the beaten whites into the dough. Bake in 
two parts in a moderate oven for about twenty minutes 
covered, and then uncover and bake until it ceases to tick 
when the ear is put near. Bake all together if desired, 
but give more time in the oven. 

Miss Pike's White Cake. 

One cup of egg whites, one-half cup of butter, two and 
one-half cups of flour (very soft flour; take less flour if 
bread flour is used), one and one-half cups of granulated 
sugar, two level teaspoonfuls baking powder, one cup of 
water, two teaspoonfuls of extract. Put together and 
bake as any white cake. 

Marshmallow Cake. 

Two cups of sugar, one cup of milk, three-fourths cup 
of butter, two and one-half cups of flour, six egg whites, 
one teaspoonful of baking powder, one teaspoonful of 
vanilla. Cream the butter and sugar. Add flour and milk 
alternately, a little at a time. Put baking powder in last 
of flour. Fold in beaten eggs last. 
Filling for Marshmallow Cake. 

Two tablespoonfuls phosphate gelatine and enough of 
the pink to color. Soak in two tablespoonfuls of cold wa- 
ter half an hour. Pour on eight tablespoonfuls of boiling 
water, stir till the gelatine is dissolved. Sift in pow- 
dered sugar until very thick. Beat until stiff after it 
cools to the consistency of honey. Spread on the cake 
while still pliable, and set in a cool place. Flavor to 
taste before beginning to beat. 
Caramel Cake. 

One-fourth cup butter, one cup of sugar, one-fourth 
cup of milk, one and one-half cups of pastry flour, or one 
and one-fourth of bread flour, one level teaspoonful of 
baking powder, two eggs, one teaspoonful of vanilla, one- 
eighth teaspoonful of grated nutmeg. Beat the eggs 



430 • HOUSEHOLD SCIENCE. 

separately. Cream the butter, then add a part of the 
sugar, and cream together, and add the rest of the sugar 
to the beaten yolks. Put the nutmeg in the yolks, add milk 
and flour alternately, incorporating one before adding 
the other, each time. Put the baking powder in with the 
last bit of flour, add the vanilla, then carefully fold in the 
whites. Bake in layers. Put together with caramel fill- 
ing. 

Filling for Caramel Cake. 

One teaspoonful of glucose, one-half cup brown sugar 
and one-fourth cup of milk. Cook the mixture until it 
forms a soft ball in cold water, let cool a little, and beat 
until it clouds a little. Flavor with vanilla, stir full of 
chopped English walnuts, and spread on the cake. The 
glucose is not necessary, except that it prevents graining 
so readily. 

Maude's Cake. 

One-half cup butter, one and one-half cups sugar, one 
teaspoonful extract, three cups flour (three and three- 
fourths if very soft flour), one cup liquid (water makes 
a more delicate mixture than milk), three level teaspoon- 
fuls of baking powder, four whole eggs. Put together 
as directed in cake making and bake in a moderate oven 
until you cease to hear a ticking when putting the ear 
near the cake, or until the cake shrinks from the pan. 

Ribbon Cake. 

One cup of butter, two cups of sugar, one cup of milk, 
four cups of flour, four eggs, four level teaspoonfuls of 
baking powder, one teaspoonful of vanilla. Put together 
as directed for butter cakes in general, and bake two lay- 
ers plain. Into the remaining dough stir three-quarters 
of a teaspoonful of cinnamon, and half a teaspoonful of 
grated nutmeg, one cup. of seeded raisins, one-half cup of 
English currants, and one-quarter cup of citron. Cut all 
very fine, and roll in flour before adding to the dough. 
Put together with white frosting. 



CAKE MAKING. 431 

Spiced Cake No. 1. 

Use one-half the quantity of the ingredients for ribbon 
cake and the whole quantity of spices. 
Spiced Cake No. 2, 

One-half cup of butter, one cup of sugar, one-half cup 
of milk, two cups of flour, two eggs, two level teaspoon- 
fuls of baking powder, one-half teaspoonful of vanilla, 
three-fourths of a teaspoonful of cinnamon, one-half a 
teaspoonful of nutmeg and one-fourth of a teaspoonful 
each of cloves and allspice. Mix the spices with the flour 
and put together as butter cakes in general. 

Marbled Chocolate Cake. 

Two ounces of chocolate, four eggs separated, one-half 
cup of milk, one teaspoonful of vanilla, one-half cup of 
butter, one and three-fourths cups of flour, one and one- 
half cups of sugar, one teaspoonful of baking powder. 
Dissolve the grated chocolate in five tablespoonfuls of 
boiling water. Cream the butter and sugar, beat the yolks 
until thick and lemon colored, add them to the creamed 
butter and sugar, and beat thoroughly. Add milk and 
flour alternately, beating vigorously between. Take out 
one-half cup of the mixture, and beat the chocolate into 
the rest. Take a tablespoonful of the well-beaten egg 
whites, and fold the rest into the cake dough. Color the 
portion in the cup with a maroon vegetable paste (bought 
for the purpose), fold in the spoonful of egg white, 
then put into the cake, and stir just enough to marble it. 
Put into the pans and bake in a moderate oven about 
forty-five minutes. 

Chocolate Cake — Mrs. Hays. 

Two cups of granulated sugar, one-half cup of butter, 
four egg yolks, well beaten, three tablespoonfuls of choco- 
late, dissolved in five tablespoonfuls of boiling water, 
two-thirds cup of sweet milk, one and itwo-thirds cups of 
flour, one level teaspoonful of baking powder, four egg 
whites, well beaten. Put together in order in which they 
are given, folding the egg whites in carefully last. 



432 HOUSEHOLD SCIENCE, 

t 

Fruit Cake — Mrs. Lugger. 

Three-fourths pound of flour, three-fourths pound of 
sugar, one-half pound of butter, two pounds of currants, 
two pounds of raisins, one pound of citron, six eggs, one- 
half pound of dates, one-half pound of figs, fine cut, one 
glass of grape juice, one teaspoonful of soda. Bake three 
hours. It will keep a year, if ) r ou wish. 

Fruit Cake — Mrs. Preston. 

Four cups of flour, two cups of sugar, two cups of but- 
ter, one cup of sweet milk, five eggs, four cups of raisins, 
two cups of currants, one cup of citron, one teaspoonful 
of soda, two teaspoonfuls of cream of tartar. Flavor to 
taste. Put together as butter cake. Roll fruit in flour 
before adding. Bake three hours. 

Fig Cake. 

One cup of sugar, one-fourth cup of butter, one egg, 
well beaten, one cup of water, two cups of flour, two level 
teaspoonfuls of baking powder, one teaspoonful of extract. 
Cream the butter with part of the sugar, then beat the rest 
into the egg after it has been beaten until light. Mix 
the flour and water with creamed butter and sugar, using 
them alternately, stir in the egg and extract, and lastly the 
baking powder in a small amount of flour. Bake in a 
moderately hot cake oven. This makes two layers an inch 
or more thick. Use any filling desired. 

Fig Filling. 

Cut up one-half pound of figs and one-half pound of 
raisins (seeded), and cook together in boiling water. 
Blanch one-half pound of almonds, and hash very fine. 
Mix with the cooked figs and raisins. Sweeten and 
flavor. If too stiff, add a little more water, and spread 
between the layers. 

Pound Cake. 

Wash and squeeze in a napkin half a pound of butter. 
Beat it with the hand until it is quite creamy, then add 



CAKE MAKING. 433 

one-half a pound of sugar. Beat until it is very white and 
light, then add one egg, and beat until incorporated 
thoroughly, then add another, and beat, so continue until 
five eggs have been used. Take great care that each egg 
is completely incorporated before the next is added. This 
requires from three to five minutes beating each egg, and 
on sufficient beating the success of the cake depends. 
When the eggs, sugar, and butter are a thick yellow mass, 
add gradually a cupful of fruit juice and one-fourth of a 
cup of rose water. Mix well together, then sift into this 
one-half a pound of flour, to which one-eighth of a tea- 
spoonful of salt has been added. When the flour is well 
mixed, put into a cake pan with straight (upright) sides, 
with buttered paper neatly fitted in it, sift powdered sugar 
over the surface. Bake the cake one and one-half hours 
in a very slow oven. It should have a cover laid over the 
top for the first hour. This may then be removed, and the 
cake allowed to brown slowly. In turning, be most care- 
ful not to shake or jar the cake. 
Lady Fingers. 

One teaspoonful of extract of lemon, three eggs, one- 
half cup of sugar (scant), one-half cup of flour, grated 
rind of half a lemon. Beat the yolks until thick and 
lemon-colored, then add the flavoring; thoroughly mix 
the sugar and flour, and stir into the beaten yolks. Beat 
the whites very stiff. Fold the whites and yolks together 
carefully by pouring the yolks on the whites, and folding 
just enough to mix well, — too much will ruin it. The 
oven must be of such a heat as will turn a paper yellow 
in five minutes. If the oven is too hot, the cakes will fall. 
Line the baking pans with paper, and dust with sugar and 
flour in equal parts. Use pastry bag with a tube one- 
half inch in diameter. 

In forming the lady fingers, bring to bear little pres- 
sure at first, and increase it toward the end. Let there 
be no delay in getting it into the oven. 



434 HOUSEHOLD SCIENCE. 

Ginger Bread— Home Rule. 

One-fourth cup of sugar, one-half cup of molasses, one- 
fourth cup of sour milk or cream (use more butter with 
milk), one cup of flour (scant), two teaspoonsfuls of but- 
ter (four, if milk is used), one egg, well beaten, three- 
fourths teaspoonful of ginger, three-fourths teaspoonful 
of cinnamon, one-fourth teaspoonful of soda. Mix the 
melted butter with the sugar. Mix the molasses, sour 
milk, and soda together. Beat the egg, and put with this, 
and put into it the creamed butter and sugar, and into this 
stir the flour, with which the spices have been mixed. 
Beat well, and bake in a moderate oven. 

Ginger Cake Class Rule. 

Two tablespoonfuls of sugar, one-half tablespoonful of 
butter, one tablespoonful of beaten egg, one-fourth cup of 
flour, one-half teaspoonful of baking powder, one-fourth 
cup of molasses, two tablespoonfuls of sweet milk, one- 
fourth teaspoonful of ginger and cinnamon each, a speck 
of soda. Put together and bake same as gingerbread. 

Coffee Ginger Cake— Home Rule. 

One-half cup of coffee, one-half cup of sugar, two ta- 
blespoonfuls of butter, one egg (well beaten), one and 
one-half cups of flour, one and one-half teaspoonfuls of 
baking powder, one cup of sorghum molasses, one-half 
teaspoonful of ginger and the same of cinnamon, one-half 
teaspoonful of salt. Put together as above. 
Coffee Ginger Cake— Class Rule. 

Sugar two level tablespoonfuls, butter one-half table- 
spoonful, eggs two level tablespoonfuls (about one-fourth 
of an egg), flour one-fourth of a cup plus two table- 
spoonfuls, baking powder three-fourths of a teaspoonful, 
sorghum molasses one-fourth of a cup, ginger one-eighth 
of a teaspoonful, cinnamon one-eighth of a teaspoonful, 
salt one-eighth of a teaspoonful, coffee (cold from break- 
fast) two tablespoonfuls. If the molasses is at all acid, a 
very little soda must be used. 



CAKE MAKING. 435 

Raised Doughnuts. 

When the dough for buns is ready to shape, roll on the 
molding board, cut into doughnuts, and fry in hot fat. 
When done, dust with powdered sugar and cinnamon. 

Doughnuts with Soda. 

One egg, three-fourths cup of sour milk, three-fourths 
cup of sour cream, one level teaspoonful of soda, one level 
teaspoonful of salt, one-half level teaspoonful of cinna- 
mon, one cup of sugar, four level cups of sifted flour. 
This makes about four dozen doughnuts. 

Doughnuts with Baking Powder. 

Make same as doughnuts with soda, except use sweet 
milk and four generous teaspoonfuls of baking powder 
instead of sour milk and soda. 

Class Rule for Doughnuts with Soda, Using Fat Instead of 
Cream. 

One-fourth cup of sour milk, one-fourth cup of sugar, 
three-fourths cup and three tablespoon fuls of flour, two 
teaspoonfuls of melted fat, two tablespoonfuls of slightly 
beaten egg, one-eighth teaspoonful of soda (sifted with 
the flour), one-eighth teaspoonful of salt, one-sixth tea- 
spoonful of cinnamon. 

Almond Wafers. 

One-half cup of butter, one cup of powdered sugar, two 
cups of flour, one-half cup of cold water. Cream the but- 
ter and sugar. Add flour and water alternately, 
thoroughly incorporating the one portion before adding 
more, and so continue until all is used. Add one teaspoon- 
ful of almond extract. Spread thinly as possible on 
greased baking sheets. Scatter shredded almonds thickly 
over the top, and bake. Cut in squares as soon as taken 
from the oven, remove from tin, and roll, if desired. They 
must be cut, removed from pan and rolled quickly, as they 
soon cool and lose all elasticity. 



436 HOUSEHOLD SCIENCE. 

Ginger Snaps. 

One cup of lard, two cups of molasses, one level table- 
spoonful of ginger, two cups flour. Put lard and molas- 
ses together, and when it boils stir in the ginger, cool a 
very little, then stir in the flour. Let get perfectly cold, 
then roll very thin, and bake in a hot oven. Be careful 
that they do not burn. Things containing molasses burn 
readily. 

Ginger Snaps—Class Rule. 

Two tablespoonfuls of lard, one-fourth of a cup of mo- 
lasses, one generous teaspoonful of ginger, one-eighth 
teaspoonful of salt, one-half cup of flour. Put the lard 
and molasses over the fire and when boiling put in the 
ginger and stir thoroughly. When cooled a little stir the 
flour into it and allow to get perfectly cold and stiff before 
rolling. Roll very thin and bake in an oven a little cooler 
than for white cookies, as they burn readily. 

Cookies with Soda. 

Three cups of flour, one cup of sour cream, two cups 
of sugar, two level tablespoonfuls of butter, one-half tea- 
spoonful soda, and a little salt, one teaspoonful (scant) 
lemon extract. Bake in quite a hot oven. Let set on 
bottom of oven until well risen and brown on bottom, then 
place a few minutes on the grate. 

Cookies — For Class Work. 

One-half cup of sour cream, one cup of sugar, one 
tablespoonful of butter, one-fourth teaspoonful of soda, a 
little salt, scant half teaspoonful of extract. Make soft as 
it is possible to roll out, using plenty of flour. 

Cookies with Baking Powder. 

One-fourth cup butter, one-half cup sugar, two table- 
spoonfuls of milk, one egg, one teaspoonful of baking 
powder, one cup flour. Cream the butter and sugar, add 
the milk and unbeaten egg and the flavoring, then beat in 
the flour same as in making cake. Add the baking powder, 



CAKE MAKING. 437 

mixed with a little of the flour, last. Roll and bake in a 
quick oven. 

Oatmeal Cookies— Mrs. Green. 

Three cups of rolled oats, one cup of wheat flour, four 
teaspoonfuls of milk, one cup of butter, two eggs, two 
teaspoonfuls of baking powder, two teaspoonfuls of va- 
nilla, one cup of sugar. Mix quite stiff, and drop from 
a spoon in greased pans. Bake slowly about half an hour. 

Kisses. 

One cup of sugar, one-half cup of water. Boil until it 
will thread, then pour boiling hot over the well-beaten 
white of one egg, flavor with rose water, and, when stiff 
enough to lay up in teaspoonsfuls on oiled paper, put into 
a very moderate oven and cook or dry for about twenty 
minutes. 

Cocoanut Macaroons. 

One cup of dessicated cocoanut, one-half cup of pulver- 
ized sugar, two level tablespoonfuls of cornstarch, two egg 
whites. Mix sugar and cornstarch, fold into the well- 
beaten egg whites, stir in the cocoanut, and bake on but- 
tered paper in a slow oven not less than forty minutes. 

Almond Macaroons. 

Two ounces of almond paste, or one-sixth of a pound 
of almonds, one egg white, one-fourth cup (generous) of 
powdered sugar, one-fourth teaspoonful of extract of 
almond or orange flower water, used to prevent oiling 
when the almonds are pounded. Blanch, dry, grind, and 
pound the almonds, adding extract or water and sugar 
gradually. When the nuts are fine, add the whites beaten 
almost stiff, and beat well together. Use one teaspoonful 
of water to one-half pound of nuts. Never use more than 
a teaspoonful of extract to a half pound of nuts. May use 
both the extract and the water. The whites of two eggs 
is sufficient for half a pound, unless eggs are very small. 
Try the mixture, and if too soft to form, add a few more 



438 HOUSEHOLD SCIENCE. 

nuts. For baking, oil the pan, then rub off all you can, 
and flour it. The dough is best put on with a pastry bag, 
but may be put on from a teaspoon, and smoothed with a 
knife and hot water. Much depends on a very moderate 
oven in baking. Leave in the oven fifteen to twenty 
minutes, or until a delicate brown. It is easier to beat the 
egg whites in a bowl, adding the sugar and nuts alter- 
nately, and continue the beating until the mixture will 
stand. Then add the extract, put into little balls, and 
smooth with a knife wet in hot water. 

When using almond paste, use a little less sugar and 
four egg whites to half a pound of paste. In using the 
paste, it is better to take the second rule for mixing, viz., 
make a frosting of egg whites and sugar, and stir paste 
into it. 
Nut Filling for Layer Cake. 

Chop fine equal parts of citron and English walnuts, 
soak full of lemon juice, thicken with powdered sugar, 
and spread on the layers of cake. 

Orange Filling for Cake. 

Juice of two oranges, with grated peel of one (or sub- 
stitute extract), one cup of sugar, two tablespoonfuls of 
butter, two eggs. Beat the yolks light, add the sugar, 
butter, and orange juice, stir over the fire until it thickens, 
then fold in the whites, which have been beaten stiff. 
Spread between the layers of cake. 

Banana Filling for Cake. 

Add one teaspoon ful of lemon juice to the white of egg 
icing for cake. Spread on the cake, slice bananas and 
press into the frosting, put on another layer of cake, and 
so on until all the laycs are on. 
Fruit Filling for Layer Cake. 

Cut fine equal parts of figs and seeded raisins. Cook 
in as little orange juice as will prevent burning. Flavor 
with cinnamon, mace, and preserved ginger, and put be- 
tween the layers of cake. 



CAKE MAKING. 439 

Cooked Fillings for Layer Cake. 

One cup milk, one egg, yolk and white beaten separate- 
ly, two tablespoonfnls of cornstarch, one and one-half 
tablespoonfuls of sugar, a dust of salt. Flavor to taste. 
Mix the cornstarch with the sugar and add it to the boil- 
ing milk, cook until the cornstarch does not taste raw, 
then pour it over the well-beaten yolk; return to the fire 
and cook one minute, pour this over the egg white, which 
has been beaten as for a meringue, with one-half table- 
spoonful of sugar, fold the two together, cool slightly and 
spread on the cake. 
Frosting for Cakes. 

There are many varieties of frostings for cakes. The 
following will illustrate the principal ones : Boiled frost- 
ing with egg and without egg; white of egg frosting; 
ornamental frosting; milk frosting (cooked); caramel 
frosting; cream frosting (uncooked) ; water or fruit- juice 
frosting; gelatine frosting. The first three are most de- 
sirable for home use. 
Boiled Frosting Without Eggs. 

One-half cup sugar, one-fourth cup of water. Boil un- 
til it will form a soft ball, then cool until the finger can 
touch the top without adhering, flavor, stir until proper 
consistency for spreading, then pour on cake. If it hard- 
ens while beating, set the bowl in hot water, and stir until 
it melts again. 
Boiled Frosting With Eggs. 

One egg white, beaten stiff, one cup of sugar, and half 
a cup of water. Boil until it will form a soft ball in cold 
water, then pour in small stream on beaten egg white, 
beating all the time until proper consistency for spreading. 
Chocolate Frosting No. 1. 

Boil one cup of sugar with one-half cup of water to the 
hairing stage, remove from the fire, and while boiling hot 
beat into it one and one-half squares of grated chocolate, 
which have been melted in a bowl set over the teakettle 



440 HOUSEHOLD SCIENCE. 

while the syrup was cooking, flavor with vanilla, beat, 
and when thickened so that it will not run off the cake 
pour over it. If stirred too long, it will harden too quick- 
ly to spread. 

Chocolate Frosting No. 2. 

Cook and add chocolate same as in chocolate frosting 
No. i, and while still boiling hot pour over the beaten 
white of one egg and continue beating until it thickens so 
it will not run off the cake, then turn it on and spread 
with a knife heated in a pitcher of boiling water. All 
things must be ready, as this hardens quickly, and, unless 
knife and water are at hand, one cannot use them suc- 
cessfully. 

Caramel Frosting, or Milk Frosting. 

Glucose, one teaspoonful ; brown sugar, one cup ; sweet 
milk, one-fourth cup ; butter, one teaspoonful ; vanilla ex- 
tract, one-half teaspoonful. Boil until it will make a soft 
ball in cold water. Pour into a bowl, let cool a little, add 
flavoring, beat until it begins to thicken, then pour over 
the cake. 

Water or Fruit-Juice Frosting. 

One-half cup of powdered sugar. Moisten with hot 
fruit-juice or water until it can be spread. Flavor with 
corresponding extract and pour on the cake. 
Cold Cream Frosting. 

Moisten powdered sugar to the spreading stage with 
sweet cream, heat over water until it melts, then spread on 
cake. 

Milk Frosting. 

Two cups of granulated sugar, one cup of sweet milk. 
Boil until stringy, then beat with egg beater until thick. 
Spread over top of cake. Then spread over this, when 
cool enough, one-half cake of chocolate, melted. 
Milk Frosting — For Class Work. 

One-half cup_of granulated sugar, one- fourth cup of 
sweet milk. Put over the fire and cook until stringy, then 



CAKE MAKING. 441 

beat with dover beater until thick, flavor and pour on the 
cake immediately. 

White of Egg Icing for Cake. 

One measure of egg to four measures of confectioners' 
sugar. Put in two or three tablespoonfuls of sugar be- 
fore beginning" to beat : as mixed, add more, and so con- 
tinue until all is used. Do not beat much before all is in, 
then beat until, when you let it stream from the spoon, it 
will show the rings for a short time. If orange colored 
frosting is desired, use the yolk of the egg instead of the 
white. This is a very desirable frosting. 

Gum Arabic Icing. 

Soak four ounces of gum arabic in one cup of cold 
water. When dissolved, strain into a double boiler, and 
add one-half a pound of confectioners' sugar, and cook 
until it makes a firm ball in cold water. Remove from 
the fire, pour the liquid over the stiffly-beaten whites of 
three eggs, and beat as in boiled icing. Before frosting 
the cake, dust the edges with powdered sugar to prevent 
the icing running down the sides, let cool somewhat be- 
fore putting on, and beat all the time it is cooling. 

To Glace Fruit. 

One cup of sugar, one tablespoonful of white wine 
vinegar, two tablespoonfuls of water. Put together and 
boil to the cracking stage. Remove from the fire, dip 
cherries or some other fruit with an unbroken surface, and 
suspend by a string to drain. Glaced fruits will keep 
only a short time. 

To Glace Nuts. 

Select unbroken kernels, and blanch and dry them. 
Then proceed in same manner as with fruit. 

References: Buckeye Cook Book, pp. 61, 84; Parloa's 
Kitchen Companion, pp. 742-745; Boston Cook Book — Lincoln 
— pp. 369-373; Cakes and Cake Decorations — King — Part 1. 



CHAPTER XXXII. 

THE DINING ROOM. 

To have the privilege of planning and building a house 
according to one's own ideas of convenience and pleasur- 
able living is very desirable. In many cases this cannot 
be done, but much can be gained by modifying an old 
house. 

A china closet built in the partition between dining 
room and kitchen can be made both ornamental and con- 
venient. This may be constructed in some pleasing de- 
sign, with glass doors on the dining-room side, and solid 
doors on the kitchen side. Arrange the china on the 
shelves so that the pieces in daily use will stand on that 
portion of the shelves lying between the opposite doors. 
The dishes can thus be passed through from the dining 
room to the kitchen with perfect ease when necessary. 
Below these doors have shelves or drawers opening into 
both kitchen and dining room for the purpose of storing 
clean linen, kitchen towels, etc. Let the space be long 
enough to admit of a rolled table cloth, and sufficiently 
spacious to allow the pieces to lie without crowding or 
creasing. 

A hardwood floor is most desirable for the dining room. 
A dull finish is preferable, as a polished floor is easily 
marred. Rugs and carpets should be avoided here, be- 
cause they gather dust, and are also inconvenient. If 
something is desired to render the noise less apparent, a 
piece of matting a little larger than the space occupied 
by the chairs may be used, the edges being well bound. 
Such a floor covering is light and easily dusted, but is not 
durable. It is better to leave the floor bare, and use 



444 HOUSEHOLD SCIENCE. 

rubber-shod chairs. The rubber prevents noise, and 
the floor is not marred. In the dining room, simplicity 
is both attractive and desirable. Here, as in all oth- 
er parts of the house, we wish to give an individual 
air, an appearance which will silently say to all who en- 
ter, "cheerfulness and hospitality reign here." The dec- 
orations and furnishings should tend to make a restful 
and homelike room. All things suggesting stiffness and 
gloom must be avoided. Smooth walls are more sanitary 
and more easily cleaned than those presenting a rough 
exterior. It is better to have the walls a neutral tint than 
to leave them pure white. If papered walls are preferred, 
there are many designs from which to choose, but in or- 
der to beautify the home in an economical way, one must 
gain good ideas of decorative art in simple things, and 
thus accomplish a pleasing effect with a moderate ex- 
penditure of money. The paper must be such as to retain 
the effect of light and cheerfulness. In choosing it, the 
size, height, and furnishings of the room must be taken 
into consideration. In general, the walls should be light- 
er than the woodwork, but this is not an invariable rule. 
No form can be given which will suit all conditions. In 
order to successfully decorate any portion of the house, 
harmony of color should be studied. Good taste and 
good judgment, combined with a knowledge of these 
things, will bring about the desired results. 

When possible, have the dining room, and, indeed, all 
the living rooms, so situated that they will have plenty of 
air and sunlight. A bright and sunny dining room may 
employ some shade of green in its decorations. One 
which is gloomy will be brightened by warm yellows and 
a little red, judiciously used. Select window shades of 
such a color that the light emitted through them will add 
to, rather than detract from, the general effect of rest and 
peace. Window curtains, whether expensive or inex- 
pensive, simple or elaborate, are most sanitary when made 
of wash material. 



THE DINING ROOM. 445 

The dining-room furniture should he simple and dura- 
ble. A beautiful dark wood, with little or no ornamenta- 
tion, is usually the most desirable kind of material to use 
in the construction of dining-room furniture. Strong - , 
well-made chairs, with backs of medium height, having 
no projecting posts, will be found most satisfactory, 
where one prefers comfort to the caprices of fashion. A 
good quality of leather makes a very satisfactory cover- 
ing for the seats of dining-room chairs. - Such chairs cost 
more than some others which are well made, but they will 
wear a long time without looking scuffed, and they have 
a substantial appearance. 

Whether the table be round or square, let fashion and 
individual taste decide. A square table gives a better 
opportunity for decoration, but in some other ways a 
round or oval shape is more desirable. For instance, 
when one wishes to seat an uneven number of persons, 
the round or oval table gives a more pleasing effect. If 
one wishes room for more elaborate decorations than a 
common table affords, it is a very easy matter to have a 
rough top made which can be set over the table when 
needed. In any case, the table should be well made, and 
stand firm, and have the legs so arranged as to be as little 
in the way as possible. 

The sideboard should be chosen of a style and quality 
to harmonize with the rest of the furniture in the room, 
and its size must be proportioned to the dimensions of 
the floor space. 

The few pictures which decorate the walls of the dining 
room should be such as will please the eye, and exert a 
quieting effect upon the nerves. 

Some nice, thrifty plants in a sunny window also 
heighten the pleasure of those who surround the festive 
board. 

In table linens, we find several qualities and many dif- 
ferent designs. The cheaper quality of table covering is 
that woven on an ordinary loom, and is often called 



446 HOUSEHOLD SCIENCE. 

simply "table linen." The more expensive linens appear 
in many different designs, and are termed "damasks." 
Table linen can be had unbleached or half bleached, 
and comes in simple designs. It is inexpensive, durable, 
washes well, and can wisely be used for common hard 
wear, if damask is deemed too expensive. A cheap 
quality of damask can be had at about the same price as a 
good table linen, but does not wear nor launder so satis- 
factorily. 

Where the air is free from smoke and dust, and where 
there is plenty of green grass and sunshine, as in the 
country, it is better to buy the half-bleached linen, 
and do the bleaching at home. One can thus get a better 
quality of linen for the same money, and it is little trouble 
to bleach it. Home-bleached linen looks as well as that 
done at the factory, and it can be bleached as used, if de- 
sired. It is not wise to use an artificial bleach, as extreme 
care is necessary in the use of such materials to avoid in- 
juring fabrics. 

One finds, on the linen counters, damask of Scotch, 
Irish, German, and French manufacture, and some from 
American looms. You can usually buy unbleached dam- 
ask of good quality in medium width for seventy-five 
cents a yard. For fine brands of Irish manufacture, you 
must pay four or five dollars a yard. Damask of each 
manufacture has its distinguishing characteristics, but 
they are not all sufficiently marked to be apparent to the 
inexperienced buyer. 

To obtain linen of good wearing quality, choose that 
which is pliable and yielding, having no sizing. Such 
cloth will wear much better than that which is stiff, 
starchy and glossy. 

Avoid a mixture of cotton and linen. All cotton or 
all linen is better than a mixture of the two. It is not 
wise to buy linen for fineness especially. Such cloths are 
less durable than those which are a little coarser, and 



THE DINING ROOM. 447 

after having worn each awhile, the difference in appear- 
ance does not warrant the difference in price. 

Ayoid a damask in which the border is separated from 
the main part of the cloth by a straight band of different 
weave, as this is very apt to draw (especially if laundred 
in the steam laundry), and injure the appearance of the 
cloth. Cross barred cloths are subject to the same critic 
cism. 

Never buy fringed cloths or towels. They soon lose, 
bits of fringe here and there, even when properly laun- 
dered, and if they come from the laundry with the fringe 
hanging in matted strings, as is often the case, they are 
unsightly from the first. 

A pattern cloth is prettier than one bought by the yard, 
but the patterns always cost more. Detached figures in 
the designs are always prettier than the all-over patterns, 
in which there is little space between the different portions 
of the pattern. Select the prettiest pattern there is in the 
lot you have to choose from, for they are all the same price, 
and a pleasing design adds much to the beauty of the 
cloth. One finds greater variety of designs in linens of 
Irish, Scotch, and French manufacture than \n German 
goods. They are also by many considered more elegant, 
but a heavy German damask gives excellent satisfaction in 
durability, and is found in many pretty designs. Avoid a 
design which has an open, lace-like effect, as the open 
work will cause the cloth to last a much shorter time. 

The way in which linen is made and cared for has much 
to do with its appearance and durability. Fashion dic- 
tates that, in figured damasks, both table cloth and nap- 
kins should be finished with a very narrow rolled French 
hem. By those who have time and skill to hemstitch and 
ornament their linens, beautiful plain damasks and round 
thread table linen may be procured. All linens should be 
hemmed by hand. In laundering linens, avoid rubbing 
them on the board, and use no starch in them, if they have 
good body, and in any case not enough to show at all as 
starchy stiffness. 



448 HOUSEHOLD SCIENCE. 

The silence cloth used under the linen adds to the 
length of time it can be used without looking soiled, and 
also renders the cloth more durable, by relieving it of 
friction from the edges of the table. It also gives a 
light-weight cloth an appearance of having more body. 

The pattern damasks and all of the better piece linens 
have napkins to match. One has a choice in size between 
those called five-eighths of a yard square, three-fourths of 
a yard square, and seven-eighths of a yard square. In 
most manufactures, they are liable to vary a few inches 
from the given size. 

The best time to buy linen is during the month of 
January. The holiday rest is then over, and the mer- 
chants, anxious to begin the new year auspiciously, have 
their supplies of new linens ready for the counters at this 
time. One has wider range of choice in both quality and 
design now than later, when the most choice pieces have 
been culled out. Odd lots, shopworn pieces, and rem- 
nants are also brought forward at this time. New de- 
signs are usually not more costly than those of the year 
before. Little is gained by buying a certain pattern, in 
the belief that it can be duplicated in time, for the pat- 
terns do not usually run very long. 



CHAPTER XXXIII 

SETTING TABLE AND SERVING MEALS. 

The dining-room table should occupy that position 
which will make the guests most comfortable, and give 
the most pleasing outlook. Let the chair to be occupied 
by the host be at the end of the table farthest from the 
door. The size of the table must always be adjusted to 
the number of guests. The top of the table must be kept 
polished and unmarred. Good form requires that the 
table be always uncovered when not in use. 

The details of setting the table and serving meals vary 
with the conditions, the times, and the taste of the 
hostess, the same as all things are swayed by fashion and 
necessity. There are some rules for setting the table 
which never change materially, and there is a medium in 
serving meals, as well as in other things, which is never 
conspicuous, not overdone, nor trying, because the guests 
are not made uncomfortable. 

Whether a beautiful and highly polished table shall be 
used with mats and doilies, or whether a plain table cov- 
ered with a handsome, snow-white damask is more de- 
sirable, the hostess and the fashion at the time must de- 
cide. If the bare table is used, it must be protected in 
some way. Mats for hot dishes are often objectionable, 
because they do not combine beauty and utility. Hand- 
painted trays, with some device to prevent sliding, answer 
all conditions, but are very expensive. If the table is to 
be covered, it must be made the proper size to accommo- 
date the number of people to be seated, then covered with 
a felt, and the cloth placed straight and smoothly over all. 

References: Boston Cook Book — Lincoln — pp. 439-443; The 
Expert Waitress — Springsteed. 



450 



HOUSEHOLD SCIENCE. 



General Rules. 

At each meal, see that such articles as the host may need 
are on a side table near that end of the room, and what 
the hostess needs are on a table near her. Oyster plates, 
salad plates, and dishes for ices should be cold, and soup 
dishes and meat and vegetable platters warm. Coffee and 
tea should be kept hot without deteriorating. In begin- 
ning the meal, first serve the lady on the right of the host, 
then pass in regular order. When removing a course, 
take the food first. 




Table Laid for Breakfast. 

BREAKFAST. 

Oranges. 

Rolled wheat with, cream. 

Plain omelet. Ci'eamed potatoes 

Bread. Hot rolls. Butter. 

Coffee. Cream. Sugar. 

The fruit plates should be put at equal distances apart, 
and exactly opposite each other on the sides and ends of 
the table. There should be a fruit doily on each plate, 
and a finger bowl about one-third full of water at the 
right-hand side of the plate. Put at each plate a breakfast 
knife and a fruit knife, with the blade of each turned to- 



SETTING TABLE, ETC. 



451 



ward the plate, — the one to he used first on the outside. 
On the left hand, place a hreakfast fork, prongs up, the 
orange spoon, and the spoon for the cereal, with the bowls 
up. If a bread and butler plate is to be used for the hot 
rolls, place it at the left of the plate, and lay the butter 
knife across the right side. At the right of the plate 
place a glass of milk or water. At the head of the table 
place a stand for the coffee pot; put cups, saucers, sugar 
bowl, and the teaspoons and sugar tongs near it. Put 
napkins at the left of the plates. Fill the glasses with 
water about two minutes before the people are seated. 




Placing a Dish. 

Cut the bread just before this, and keep the butter cold 
and the rolls hot until needed. 

As soon as the guests are seated, pass the oranges, of- 
fering them at the left of each person. 

Serve the lady of the house, unless there are old peo- 
ple or guests present, in which case serve them before the 
others. 

When the fruit is finished, remove first the fruit dish, 
then quickly and quietly take away to the pantry all be- 
longing to that course. Step to the right of each person, 



452 



HOUSEHOLD SCIENCE. 



and place the finger bowl and doily, with silver intended 
for the oranges, whether used or not, on the plate, and 
remove. Bring in the dish of rolled wheat, covered, on 
a tray, with a spoon beside it. Place a cereal bowl on a 
plate before each guest. Remove the cover from the dish 
to the side table, put a spoon in the cereal, and offer it 
by passing it on a small tray at the left of each person. 
Offer the sugar and cream also at the left. When the 
cereal is finished, remove this course same as the one be- 
fore, taking food first. 

Have the bread, butter, and hot rolls at hand on the 




Passing a Dish. 

side table, ready to set on the table the instant the other 
is removed. These can be brought as the other things are 
taken out. Place the omelet on a warm platter at the 
foot of the table. Put a tablespoon at the right, and a 
fork at the left. Place the dish of potatoes conveniently 
at the right. Bring a pile of warm plates, and place at 
the left. As the plates are filled, give one to each guest, 
placing it from the right. Pass the rolls and bread. 
Place the butter as it is dished by some member of the 



SETTING TABLE, ETC. 453 

family. Bring a pitcher of boiling water, and a bowl for 
the use of the lady of the house as she pours the coffee. 
As each cup of coffee is poured, place it where it belongs. 
Each one is prepared to suit the individual taste. If milk 
be used in coffee, instead of cream, it is much better to 
have it hot. Watch during the entire meal for anything 
that may be needed, and fill the glasses when empty. Let 
no one be under the necessity of asking for anything dur- 
ing the meal. 

The Side Board. 

Whether the sideboard is covered or bare depends on 
the table. If it is covered, let the sideboard be covered 
also. On the sideboard should be placed the water pitcher, 
sugar bowl for cereal, extra plates, spoons, knives, etc., 
that may be needed. 

Luncheon. 

Luncheon means primarily a light repast taken be- 
tween breakfast and dinner. This repast can be made 
very simple, and it may be made almost as elaborate as a 
dinner. There are two reasons for serving a luncheon. 
The first and chief reason is to supply the body with some 
nutrients during the time of brain activity, when the 
children are busy with their school work, and adults of the 
family begrudge the time necessary to eat a full meal. It 
seems easier to use up the odds and ends at this time, be- 
cause in the morning the appetite is not good, and the 
evening is the only time that the family can all be together. 

There is much discussion as to whether it is better to 
take the heaviest meal of the day at noon or in the even- 
ing. When the family is exercising freely, it would seem 
better to take the heavy meal in the middle of the day, and 
if they do not exercise freely at any time, why do they 
need heavy meals. 

Cream soups and purees, with plenty of good bread, 
butter, and milk, form the substantial part of a simple 
every-day luncheon. To these may be added any dainty 



454 



HOUSEHOLD SCIENCE. 



and tasty dishes which can be manufactured from the 
odds and ends found in the pantry. 

SIMPLE FAMILY LUNCHEON. 

Puree of green peas 

Bread Butter. 

Chicken croquettes Baked potatoes 

Sliced tomatoes Salted wafers 

Apple pie and cheese 

Milk and chocolate. 




Table Laid for Luncheon. 

If the table is to be covered, have it the proper size, 
and the silence cloth and luncheon cloth straight and 
smooth, as before. In the center of the table place 
flowers, fruit, or something- of the kind, tastefully ar- 
ranged. At the foot of the table, place a mat for the 
platter holding the croquettes, and lay a spoon at the 
right and a fork at the left of the dish. At the head of the 
table place a stand for the cocoa pitcher, and beside it 
place the sugar bowl, spoons, teacups, etc. A stand for a 



SETTING TABLE, ETC. 455 

cocoa or coffee pot should correspond with the pot, to 
be as inconspicuous as possible. 

Use individual salts, or place salt and pepper for each 
two persons. 

Place a luncheon plate for each person, observing the 
same exactness as is always necessary in setting the table. 
At the right of each plate place a luncheon knife, a knife 
for butter (if a separate knife is used), a soup spoon, and 
a water glass, observing the same rules as before. At the 
left lay the luncheon fork, a salad fork, a napkin with the 
bread sticks or toast fingers for the soup, and the bread 
and butter plate, if used. Place the dessert plates and 
forks on the sideboard. See that the soup dishes are hot. 
Ascertain whether there will be any delay. Fill the water 
glasses, and announce the meal. 

As soon as the guests are all seated, if the soup is to be 
served from the butler's pantry, the waiter brings a dish 
of hot soup on a small silver tray, passes to the right 
side of the guest at the host's right hand, and places the 
soup dish quietly on the plate. 

If the soup is to be served at the table, bring the soup 
tureen on the tray, and place it in front of the hostess. 
Remove the cover, and put it on the side table. Lay the 
soup ladle beside the tureen at the right, and place the 
warm soup plates conveniently at the left. 

The waiter should stand at the left of the hostess, and 
as soon as a dish of soup is served, take it up with the 
right hand, pass and place it as before. 

To remove the soup course, place the tureen on the 
tray, lay the ladle beside it, and carry out. To remove the 
plates, put the spoon in the dish, and take the luncheon 
plate with the soup dish. Carry one in each hand, and 
remove quietly. Always place and take at the right, but 
when passing a dish, offer it at the left. 

The potatoes may lie brought and placed covered on the 
side table, and passed by the waiter after the croquettes, 
or put on the plate with them. Bring in the croquettes 



456 HOUSEHOLD SCIENCE. 

and potatoes, and place the dishes on mats. Place a 
spoon beside the potato dish. Put a pile of warm plates at 
the left of the platter. As soon as a plate is served with 
croquettes and potatoes, pass and place in front of the 
lady of the house, unless there are guests who should be 
first served. Wait upon each person at the table in the 
same way. 

Pass the bread, and place the butter as it is served by 
a member of the family. The tomatoes have been previ- 
ously served cold on salad plates, and set in a convenient 
and cool place. Set a plate before each person, and pass 
the vinegar or other dressing which is to be used with the 
tomatoes. 

Pass the salted wafers. 

To remove the course, place the serving fork and spoon 
on the platter, place the platter and fork rest on the tray,. 
and carry away. Return for the potato dish and the 
bread. Remove the soiled dishes one in each hand, as be- 
fore. Remove the butter, salt, and pepper, and any silver 
that has not been used. Remove crumbs from the pol- 
ished table with fringed napkin and crumb tray. From the 
tablecloth take crumbs with silver crumb knife and tray. 
Place the pie before the hostess, and on the right put a 
silver knife, and on the left a pie fork. Place a pile of 
dessert plates conveniently at her left. As soon as a 
plate is ready, place a fork on it and pass to the right 
of the guest, and set it down. Serve each person the 
same way, and pass the cheese. If a cup or glass needs 
replenishing, attend to it at once, at any time during the 
meal. 

Dinner. 

A dinner is more elegant if a handsome and expensive 
plate is at each place when the table is set. These are re- 
moved by the waitress as she places the dishes of the first 
course. 

Whether a carving cloth is used depends upon whether 
the carving is done at the table. Sometimes fashion de- 



SETTING TABLE, ETC. 



45/ 



crees that if a man is not a good carver, it is perfectly 
good form to have the roast brought to the table carved, 
and held in place by decorations of a suitable kind. 

MENU FOR DINNER. 

Raw oysters 

Amber soup 

Celery Salted almonds 

Baked shad — Sauce Allemand 

Fillet of beef — Mushroom sauce 

Mashed potatoes Browned sweet potatoes 

Rice croquettes 

Tomato salad 

Salted wafers Edam cheese 

Queen of Pudding 

Coffee. 




Table Laid for Dinner. 

The tablecloth should be heavy and handsome, with 
large, square napkins to match. The same care must be 
exercised as before to have the size of the table suit the 
number of guests, and the cloth and the silence cloth per- 
fectly straight and smooth. Place a center piece of flow- 
ers in the middle of the table. Let this be of medium 
size and height. Candles and mirrors are sometimes used. 
Candlesticks are placed in a square a short distance from 



458 HOUSEHOLD SCIENCE. 

the flowers. Candelabra are placed one on each side of the 
flowers. The decorations may set on an embroidered 
piece, or on one of lace-work, or of silk or satin, if pre- 
ferred. 

It is very generally customary to have olives and salted 
almonds on the table when the guests are seated. These 
are served in small, beautiful, oval-shaped dishes, placed at 
intervals along the table, and the guests help themselves 
to them between the courses. 

Celery is used in the same way, but served on a low, 
long dish made for the purpose. It is customary at the 
present time to further decorate the table by placing at 
each end a high dish of beautiful fruit, artistically ar- 
ranged. Each of these dishes is accompanied by two 
low dishes, containing small cakes, bonbons, etc. When 
these are used for the decorations, they always form a 
portion of the dessert. The cakes are passed with the 
ices, and the fruit is served afterwards. 

The dinner plates should be the handsomest the house 
affords, and be put on with the same exactness directed 
for breakfast and luncheon. At the right of and next to 
each plate, place a knife for the roast, next to this a soup 
spoon. Next the plate on the left, place a dinner fork, 
then the fish fork, and on the outside an oyster fork. 
Place the napkin at the left of the plate, with a dinner 
roll folded in it. At the right, place the water glass, — 
a goblet is at present most desirable. 

The oysters must be free from shells, perfectly 
cold, and served on cold plates. It is best to have 
shaved ice among them. As soon as the guests are seated, 
serve the oysters, with a lemon point on the edge of 
each plate. The dinner plate must be removed from 
the left with the left hand, and the oysters placed 
from the right with the right hand. If time and space 
are of any consequence, it is better to leave the hand- 
some plate off, and simply place the oysters from the 
right. Remove the course as directed before. 



SETTING TABLE, ETC. 459 

Place the soup tureen and some warm soup plates be- 
fore the hostess. Lay the soup ladle conveniently at the 
right. When a portion of the soup is served, the waiter, 
who stands at the left of the hostess, should take it in the 
right hand and place it on the tray, step to the person 
sitting at the right of the host, and place it quietly on 
the plate before the guest. Serve the others in regular 
order. 

To remove the course, first take the soup tureen on the 
tray, then remove the soup plates, one in each hand. 
Carry the platter of fish, the fish sheer, and the fish fork in 
on the tray. Place the platter before the host, and lay 
the fish sheer at the right of the platter, and the fish fork 
at the left of it. Bring the warm fish plates in, and place 
them where they can be conveniently taken with the left 
hand. When a plate of fish is served, take it with the 
right hand, and, standing at the right of the guest of 
honor, put it down, first removing the handsome plate, if 
one is used. Serve all in the same way, then place the 
sauce boat on the tray, and offer at the left of each per- 
son. The host might serve this on the plate with the fish, 
except that some prefer fish without sauce. To remove 
the fish course, place the platter on the tray with the fish 
sheer and fish fork beside it, and carry away. After- 
wards take the soiled plates, one in each hand. If the 
celery and almonds have not been served by those at the 
table, offer first the celery and then the almonds. Place 
the roast before the host, and lay the carving knife and 
gravy spoon at the right and the carving fork at the left 
of the platter. Place the warm plates in the same posi- 
tion as for fish. Bring in the sweet potatoes and the 
white potatoes, remove the covers, and let the host serve 
a portion of each vegetable with the meat. 

When a plate is ready, serve in the same manner as the 
fish, and pass the sauce for the same reason as before. 
The potatoes of both kinds might be set on the side table, 
and passed by the waiter after he has served the meat, 



460 HOUSEHOLD SCIENCE. 

and returned to the side table, but it is just as good form 
to serve them on the plates, and lessen the time and serv- 
ice needed for the meal. 

If birds are served, they are brought in immediately 
after the meat course is removed. The salad course 
comes next, and fashion at the present time, dictates that 
the salad shall be served by the waiter. Whether it is 
served by the waiter or a member of the family it is 
brought in on a tray in a handsome salad bowl. A salad 
fork and spoon are in the bowl. The waiter places a 
salad fork quietly at each place. If a member of the 
family is to serve the salad, place the bowl of salad be- 
fore the host, and place cold salad plates at the left, con- 
venient for serving. The waiter stands at the left of the 
host, and carries the plates the same as in the other 
courses. 

After the salad, remove everything except the decora- 
tions and water glasses and the fruit and cakes, if they 
have been used on the table, as they often are at the pres- 
ent time. If there is a carving cloth, turn the corners to- 
gether, and lift it quickly to the tray and carry out. Re- 
move the crumbs. The waiter then brings the dessert, one 
plate at a time on a small silver tray, and places before 
the guests. 

If the pudding is to be served by one of the family, it 
is brought in and placed in front of the hostess, with 
the pudding slicer at the right of the pudding dish, and 
the spoon at the left. The waiter serves each person as 
the hostess makes the plates ready. This course is re- 
moved the same as the others, and the coffee is served. If 
fruit is used after an ice, it and the coffee are on the table 
at the same time. 

At fashionable dinners at the present time, black coffee 
is used, and is poured by the waiter from a silver coffee 
pot. Cream is never used with it, but sugar may be used. 
If it is desirable to have this office performed by a 



SETTING TABLE, ETC. 461 

member of the family, a coffee tray and the coffee or 
chocolate pot would be placed before the hostess. 

In an ideal dinner party, each guest is perfectly com- 
fortable and happy during- the entire time spent under the 
hostess' roof. Happy is the hostess who understands suf- 
ficiently the personal relations of her friends to invite only 
those who are congenial. Fortunate is she if she can cast 
all care aside, and without any apparent effort infuse the 
spirit of good cheer into each of her guests. It is 
not only the good pleasure of the hostess to do these 
things, but it is her duty, as well. She meets her guests in 
the drawing room, and tactfully and skillfully aids them 
in forming pleasant little groups, and keeps them chat- 
ting merrily until all have arrived. Then the party enters 
the dining room. 

The host leads the way, taking- the most honored lady. 
She may be the oldest lady, or the one in whose honor 
the dinner is given. The other guests enter in any order 
they please. The hostess leaves the drawing room last, 
with the most honored gentleman. 

At the table, the hostess must be gracious and happy, 
and perfectly at ease, seemingly unconscious of all that 
passes, yet deftly managing to have the serving well done, 
and keep the guests all engaged in bright and cheerful 
conversation. When the hostess sees that all are ready, 
she lays her napkin on the table, and the host rises and 
leads the way to the drawing room. 



CHAPTER XXXIV. 

EXTRA WORK FOR EACH DAY IN THE WEEK. 

The following conditions are supposed to exist : The 
family consists of four or five people, and but one maid 
is kept. The ladies of the family do the work necessarily 
done daily in the front part of the house, put rooms to 
air, make beds, and dust the bedrooms. When the weekly 
cleaning is done, they dust the bedrooms, dust the bric-a- 
brac in the parlors, remove all such things, and return 
them to their places. 

MONDAY. 

It is best to have the washing done on Monday. This 
is not always an easy matter. No article of soiled clothing 
should be thrown into the closet, even for a short time, 
but when discarded should be placed where it can be car- 
ried to the laundry and put in the hamper. By this means 
it becomes possible for the maid to rise early, sort the 
clothes, and begin the washing, and thus the clothes will 
have ample time for drying while the sun is bright and 
the air comparatively free from dust and smoke. 

The results are most satisfactory when the clothes are 
taken from the line at the time that there is just moisture 
enough remaining in them to render the smoothing pro- 
cess perfect. It is not wise to do this when one woman is 
laundering the clothes, in addition to attending to kitchen 
and dining room work, because the two exercises per- 
formed on the same day tax the strength too severely. The 
laundry should be kept clean, and be put in order after 
the washing is finished. Monday evening, dampen the 
clothes, and fold them for ironing. 



EXTRA WORK. 463 

TUESDAY. 

On Tuesday morning set the bread as soon as the morn- 
ing work is done, have the irons hot, and do the ironing. 
If the bread is made by the quick process, and that is by 
far the best method, you have some nice loaves of bread 
within five hours after putting the yeast and flour to- 
gether, and thus have bread baked and a portion of the 
ironing done in the forenoon. In the afternoon, the but- 
tons may be sewed on, and the rents mended by the mis- 
tress while the maid finishes the ironing. It is always 
unwise to leave any rents until after the clothing is 
washed, if possible to avoid it. Endeavor to have the 
clothes perfectly • dry by evening, that they may be put 
away in their places. 

WEDNESDAY. 

On Wednesday do the extra baking necessary for the 
family, and clean the kitchen and dining-room closets, 
and the kitchen and dining-room floors. The kitchen 
closets, and in fact all closets, should have floors of closely 
joined wood, and smooth, hard walls, either ceiled or 
plastered. The shelves should be smooth, and painted or 
oiled, that nothing spilled may find lodgment in any crack 
or crevice, or any substance be absorbed by them. 

The floor is best left bare, as it thus harbors no insects 
and dirt. The store closet should have a small window, 
with a solid, close-fitting blind and a screen, that it may 
be opened to give light and means of ventilation when nec- 
essary, and be closed to darken the room when desired. 
This closet should have many tin pails with covers for 
storing moderate quantities of such things as insects and 
mice attack so constantly. Such receptacles in a poor 
quality of tin would last long in a dry place, and can be 
had for a moderate sum. If the .shelves are not ex- 
tremely dirty, warm water and a clean cloth and sapolio, 
vigorously applied, will clean them. Open the window 
and give light. Begin at the top, remove each article, 



-464 HOUSEHOLD SCIENCE. 

fold the shelf paper up with its accumulated dust, and 
burn it. Scrub the shelves, wipe dry, and then rub with a 
fresh cloth, to remove all moisture possible. Scatter pow- 
dered borax on the shelf, and in the openings, if there 
be any, between the shelves and wall ; put on clean 
papers, and replace the things. (The borax is to prevent 
the appearance of roaches on the shelves, if any are 
about.) Continue so to the bottom, and clean the closet 
floor thoroughly, also. Closets are extremely convenient, 
but should always be so that they can be lighted and aired, 
and they must have personal inspection at least once a 
week. Such a thorough cleaning as that just described 
would probably not be needed oftener than once a month ; 
but there are the pantry shelves, the closet for cooking 
utensils, and the dining-room closet, and a closet some- 
where on the first floor for overcoats, etc. This 
makes four closets, one to be thoroughly cleaned each 
week. The closet floor should be cleaned and the shelves 
■dusted with a slightly dampened cloth every week. 

Hardwood floors are best for kitchen and dining room. 
A sweeper is useful in removing crumbs from the floor be- 
fore beginning to clean the table. A hair broom covered 
with a cloth of canton flannel, rough side out, is good for 
cleaning walls. 

In sweeping a plain floor, matting, or carpet, go with 
the grain, and, when possible, sweep toward the light. A 
pointed brush should be at hand for the corners. Oiled 
floors should be washed clean with warm water, and 
wiped dry. A tile floor is treated in the same way. Lino- 
leum and oilcloth usually need nothing more than warm 
water. Soapsuds spoils the appearance of oilcloth, and 
when something is needed in addition to the water, put 
a little sweet milk into the pail of water. This helps to 
retain the luster. 
To Glean the Dining Room- 
Dust the curtains and remove. If on rods, they are 
easily lifted out. Remove all vases of cut flowers. Re- 



EXTRA WORK. 465 

move plants, and dust, and wash them, if necessary. Dust 
and remove any articles which may be on the sideboard. 
Dust the sideboard, and cover it. Dust the chandelier, and 
draw a bag over it and tie. Dust the chairs, and remove 
them from the room. Dust the pictures, and cover them 
with a piece of cotton cloth pinned over each. An old 
sheet or a piece of unbleached muslin makes good covers 
for articles of furniture too heavy to move from the 
room. Remove the matting, if there is one, and clean it. 
Clean the windows. A paint brush or a brush for the 
purpose will remove dust from the corners of the sash. 
Paint on the glass can be removed by rubbing with a lit- 
tle baking soda on a damp cloth. Wash the windows 
using simply warm water, if this will suffice. If much 
soiled, use a little baking soda in the water, as soap in- 
jures the finish on wood work. If they need nothing more 
than dusting, rub the lower parts with a dry cloth, and the 
higher portions with a broom prepared for dusting walls. 
Use a little ammonia in the water for washing window 
glass, because some soaps are hard to remove, and do not 
leave the glass clear. Do not wash windows when the 
sun shines hot on them, for they dry before one can polish 
them properly, and will look streaked and spotted. For 
wiping window glass use a soft cloth which will absorb 
the water readily, and leave no lint on the glass. A soft, 
unsized paper makes a very satisfactory material for pol- 
ishing window glass. 

If the floor is hardwood, clean as directed above. If 
polished, use a soft brush ; if waxed, use a weighted 
brush. If there are brass doorknobs to polish, cut a piece 
of pasteboard to fit exactly about the part which lies on 
the surface of the door, that the polishing may be done 
without injuring the woodwork. 

Just a few words about dust cloths. Cheese cloth is the 
best material for dusting. It is soft, takes up the dust 
well, and is not hard on the furniture. When using the 
dust cloth, fold the dust inside at each stroke, and when 



466 HOUSEHOLD SCIENCE. 

the cloth needs shaking, do not open a window and shake 
it, for in this way very often as much dust comes in as 
goes out. Better take the cloth outside, shut the door, and 
shake the cloth well to remove all dust. When through 
using it for the day, put it into a pail of clean water, rinse, 
and dry ready for the laundry, and take a clean one next 

dusting time. 

THURSDAY. 

Clean bedrooms, upper hall, and stairs. The last one 
to leave the sleeping room should each morning place two 
chairs at the foot of the bed, throw the bed clothes back 
over these, and open doors and windows. It is well to 
leave the empty slop pail in the bath-room window on the 
way to breakfast. The air and sunshine then begin their 
sanitary work upon the room at once,, and the maid can 
do up the kitchen work while the family are at breakfast. 
To make beds, remove the bed clothes, and, if there be a 
piazza, hang them on it to air, provided the weather per- 
mits. If they cannot be taken out, place them where the 
air will pass freely through them. Remove the lower 
sheet, and shake it outside the window. Dust the mat- 
tress, and put it out to air, if you can. In any case, re- 
move it and dust the frame work of the bed. Dust the 
chairs and all movable things, and take to another room, 
and shut the door. Dust upholstered furniture on the 
piazza if possible. Dust is one of the mediums which 
carry germs, and the more of it we can put outside the 
house the better. 

Remove all scarfs, tidies, etc., shake outside, and carry 
to the laundry when you go down stairs, if they are soiled. 
Take the rug up carefully, carry down stairs, dust, and 
leave on the line if the weather permits. Dust dresser and 
commode, and cover them. No soiled clothing, old shoes, 
or any garments which have been worn, and are not neces- 
sarily kept in the closet, should be allowed to remain, for 
they emit odors, attract insects, and take up needed room. 

Bare floors are best, because there is no chance for in- 
sects to harbor. Take out and shake and brush any 



EXTRA WORK. 467 

clothing which has escaped this before hanging up, and 
clean the closet floor. If mattress and bedding are out 
of doors, leave them there, and proceed to clean the floor 
by first sweeping the dirt from the sides and corners of the 
room, and take all up on the dust pan. Never sweep the 
dirt from a room into the hall, but keep it close as pos- 
sible. Now wash the floor, using a clean mop in the 
center if you wish, but never about the sides of the room. 
If the bed clothes must be left in the room, make the bed 
just before beginning the sweeping, and cover up. Dust 
the woodwork, fold the furniture covers carefully with 
the dust inside, and shake later. Put things again in their 
places. Shut all the bedroom doors, open hall window, 
and clean the upper hall and stairs. Use the carpet 
sweeper on the carpet, and take the dirt up on each side 
of it with broom and dust pan. Wash the floor with 
water and cloth. Clean the carpet on the stairs with a 
brush, and take the dirt from each step into the dust pan. 
Afterwards clean the uncovered parts of the steps with a 
cloth. 

FRIDAY. 
Friday, clean the silver, and sweep and dust the parlor 
and front hall. If the curtains and other draperies are on 
rollers and easily removed, take them out gently, and 
brush the dust from them, and lay them aside. If not re- 
movable, brush off the dust as well as you can, catch 
them up near the top, and cover. 

Take all movable rugs from both hall and parlor out 
doors, and brush them with a soft brush on each side, 
following the line of the nap. Remove sofa pillows and 
brush them. Dust all bric-a-brac, and remove. Remove 
all upholstered furniture to the piazza for dusting, if pos- 
sible; otherwise brush and cover. Dust chairs, and re- 
move from the room, also all other movable pieces of fur- 
niture, etc. Dust pictures, and cover. In dusting things 
inside the room, we only drive the dust from one spot, to 
have it settle in another. 



468 HOUSEHOLD SCIENCE. 

If there is an open book case in the room, begin at the 
top and dust both books and case, and so proceed to the 
bottom and cover all. Dust and cover all furniture in the 
hall. If there is a rug too large to remove, dust it, roll 
it up, and place it at one side. Sweep the floors, and 
while the dust is settling, clean the rugs by wiping the 
surface gently with a sponge squeezed from clear water. 
Clean the floors. Remove dust from walls and wood 
work with the covered hair broom, and clean the windows, 
if they need it. Dust woodwork, fold furniture covers 
carefully, as before, and put things again in place. Rugs 
too large to be moved must be sponged after sweeping. 
Begin the work on the further side, and work toward the 
door, that you may not step on the cleaned part of the 
rug, and be sure that the sponge is damp only, not wet. 

If the floor is carpeted, sweep as directed, and after 
the dust settles use a clean sweeper and sponge same as 
rugs. A carpet sweeper should be cleaned very often. 
Before sweeping a floor, either bare or carpeted, scatter 
over it some dust preventer, — newspapers soaked in cold 
water, squeezed as dry as possible, and torn in bits are 
most excellent. Tea leaves squeezed dry are good. A 
handful of salt scattered about will aid in preventing the 
dust rising. Damp sawdust is also good. When all is 
ready, remove the furniture covers with their dust, and 
fold as before, then put the things again in place. Clean 
the hall floor, and put things in order there. 

Polishing Silver. 

Whiting is the foundation of most silver polishes. It is 
often wiser to buy or use simply whiting, which is 
cheaper and sometimes less injurious to the silver than the 
more expensive polishes. Never use ammonia in polish- 
ing silver, as it is apt to injure the silver. Rub with a 
little whiting on a damp cloth, then polish with a dry 
cloth, wash and wipe dry. 

SATURDAY. 

Do the extra baking, and clean the kitchen floor. 



CHAPTER XXXV. 

HOME-MADE CANDIES. 

In making home-made candies, have a care to the fol- 
lowing things. Make delicate in flavor; also vary the 
flavoring as much as possible. A variety is made by using 
crystalized ginger, candied pineapple, angelica, and can- 
died cherries. These aid both in flavor and attractiveness. 
Combining two flavors, as vanilla and lemon, often pro- 
duces an agreeable effect. Vegetable colorings may be 
used for tinting candies, but they must be very carefully 
used, or the candy will be too highly colored. A little on 
the end of a toothpick will be sufficient for the amount 
of fondant made from a cup of sugar. Shape the can- 
dies as nearly as possible like the store products. They 
appear clumsy if too large, and small pieces are more 
dainty. 

For immediate use, candies which will melt or be- 
come sticky are not objectionable, but are better wrapped 
in parafnne paper. For packing to send away, use only 
the sugared bonbons, candies made from fondant, etc. 
Filled figs, cherries, and dates are also good. Something 
which will not dry out nor melt readily is most desirable. 
To Make Fondant. 

Measure one cup of granulated sugar, and stir into it 
cream of tartar half the size of a small pea. Put the sugar 
into a small vessel (granite ware or tin), and pour over it 
three-fourths of a cup of hot water. Cover closely, and 
cook covered and without stirring until it will form a soft 
ball in cold water. Pour into a pint bowl, and let cool un- 
til you can touch the surface lightly without its adhering 
to the finger. When cooled to this point, stir rapidly with 
a stiff, small spoon until it becomes thick and white, but 
not until it grains. Pour into a previously lightly but- 



470 HOUSEHOLD SCIENCE. 

tcred dish. Take the mass in the hands, and knead until 
it becomes creamy. If it hardens suddenly, wet the 
hands slightly, and continue to work it. Roll in paraffine 
paper, and lay away for a day, when it will usually be 
found creamy, and ready for use, but if lack of experi- 
ence causes it to grain, rolling tightly in oiled paper for a 
few hours will usually remedy this. 
Fondant No. 2. 

Two cups of sugar, one-third of a cup of glucose, one 
and one-half cups of water. Boil until it forms a stiff ball 
in cold water. Pour into a bowl, and, when cool, beat un- 
til white, then knead in hands until creamy. 

Sugar Taffy — (For Beginners.) 

One cup of sugar, one-sixth of a cup of glucose, one 
and one-half cups of water. Boil until it will form a hard 
ball in cold water. Turn into buttered tins, and finish as 
any other taffy. 
Brown Sugar Taffy. 

Put into a saucepan six tablespoonfuls (or three ounces) 
of butter and three and one-half cups (or one pound) of 
brown sugar and one cup of hot water, boil to the crack- 
ing stage. Pour into greased plates, and mark into 
squares and let cool and harden, when it is ready for use. 
Or the candy may be allowed to cool slightly and pulled 
as taffy. 
Brown Sugar Taffy Glass Rule. 

One and one-half tablespoonfuls of butter, three- 
fourths cup of sugar, one-fourth cup of hot water. Pro- 
ceed as in home rule. 

Velvet Molasses Candy. 

Velvet molasses candy is nice, and can be easily formed 
into any fancy shapes if one chooses to have it so. 

One-fourth cup of molasses, three-fourths cup of sugar, 
one-fourth cup of boiling water, three-fourths table- 
spoonful of vinegar, one-eighth teaspoonful of cream of 
tartar, two tablespoonfuls of butter, one-sixteenth tea- 



HOME-MADE CANDIES. 471 

spoonful soda. Put the first four ingredients into a 
saucepan over the fire. When the contents of the pan 
boil, add the cream of tartar. Boil until it is brittle when 
tried in cold water. Stir constantly during the last part 
of the cooking. 

When nearly done, add the butter and soda. Cool, and 
pull as taffy. While pulling, add a few drops of vanilla 
and a few drops of lemon extract, or a few drops of pep- 
permint or wintergreen. 

Plain Molasses Candy. 

One cup of granulated sugar, one cup of sorghum mo- 
lasses, two level teaspoonfuls of butter, soda the size of a 
pea, one cup of water. Boil the molasses, sugar and wa- 
ter until a little of the candy dropped into cold water will 
form a hard ball, put in the butter and soda, boil to the 
cracking stage, turn into buttered pans and pull as taffy. 
Flavor to taste. 

Butter Scotch. 

One-half cup sugar, two tablespoonfuls of molasses, one 
tablespoonful of vinegar, three tablespoonfuls of butter. 
Boil together until brittle w r hen tried in cold water. 
When done, turn into a well-buttered dish, and mark into 
squares when partly cool. 

Toffee. 

One pound of brown sugar, one-half cup of butter, 
juice of one lemon, or four tablespoonfuls of vinegar. 
Heat sugar, butter, and acid over the fire to 270 ° F., and 
pour over nuts, and let harden. Or cook until it forms a 
soft ball in cold water. 

Peanut Candy. 

One cup of coffee C sugar, one cup rolled peanuts. 
Melt sugar in hot pan. Mix with peanuts, pour into a 
hot pan, and spread with a knife. 

Peanut Nougat. 

One pound of granulated sugar, one quart of peanuts. 
Blanch peanuts (may chop), and sprinkle with one- 



472 HOUSEHOLD SCIENCE. 

fourth of a teaspoonful of salt. Melt the sugar, keeping 
it from sides of pan. Pour in the nuts, and turn into but- 
tered dish to cool. 

Maple Cream. 

One cup of brown sugar, one-fourth cup of granulated 
sugar, one-half cup of milk or cream. Cook without stir- 
ring until it will form a soft ball in cold water. Remove 
from the fire, and beat until creamy, pour into shallow pan 
(buttered), and cut into cubes. 
Walnut Cream. 

Another delicious compound may be made by adding 
walnut meats to the maple cream just before removing it 
from the fire. 

If one level tablespoonful of glucose is used with the 
above, there will be no danger of its being grainy. 

Maple and Nut Bar. 

One pound of maple sugar, three-fourths cup of thin 
cream, one-fourth cup of boiling water, two-thirds cup of 
English walnuts, or pecan nuts, cut in pieces. Put water 
and sugar into a saucepan. When it boils, pour in the 
cream. Boil until it gives a soft ball, remove from the fire, 
and beat until creamy. Brown sugar may be used. 
When creamy, stir in the nuts and turn into buttered tins 
to cool. 

Maple and Nut Bar — Class Rule. 

One-third pound of maple sugar, one-fourth cup of 
cream, one-eighth cup of boiling water, one-sixth cup of 
walnuts. Proceed as in home rule. 

Nut Roll. 

Nut roll is usually appreciated by the children. 

One ounce blanched almonds, one ounce English wal- 
nuts, one ounce pecan nuts, one ounce pistachio nuts. Mix 
the above with one-half pound of fondant, and flavor with 
almond extract. Roll out and cut into desired form. 

Another variety may be made by grating fresh cocoa- 
nut, and mixing with the fondant. 



HOME-MADE CANDIES. 473 

Fruit Balls. 

Chop together one ounce citron, six raisins, one table- 
spoonful of currants, one fig and three walnut meats. 
Mix with these a piece of fondant the size of an egg. Roll 
into balls a little larger than a hazel nut, and place on 
oiled paper to harden. Cover such with fondant flavored 
with vanilla. This is done by flattening a piece of fond- 
ant in the hand, then rolling around the ball, or melt the 
fodant, and dip same as directed for cholocate creams. 
Cocoanut Bar. 

Two cups of sugar, one cup of water or milk, one- 
fourth teaspoon ful of cream tartar, or use two level table- 
spoons of glucose, one-fourth pound dessicated cocoanut. 
Stir all but cocoanut until thoroughly dissolved, then 
cook gently until it forms a soft ball in cold water. Re- 
move immediately from the fire, and when ready, — that is 
cooled a little, — beat until white, then add cocoanut, and 
pour out at once. It should be soft and creamy. Fresh- 
grated cocoanut is better than dessicated. 

Chocolate Caramels. 

Cream well together one-eighth of a pound of unsweet- 
ened chocolate, one-fourth cup of sugar, one-fourth cup of 
molasses, one-fourth cup of milk or cream, and two table- 
spoonfuls of butter. Boil all together until the candy 
cracks when tried in cold water, then pour one-half inch 
thick in a buttered pan. When nearly cold, mark into 
small squares. Great care must be taken in cooking, or 
the caramels will be burned. Do not stir while cooking, 
but scrape from bottom to prevent burning. 
Caramel Creams No. 1. 

Two pounds sugar, one cup of thick cream, two ounces 
of fresh butter. Melt sugar with one-half cup water. 
When the mixture boils, pour in cream very slowly, stir- 
ring, then add butter and flavoring, stirring gently, but 
constantly. As soon as the syrup is brittle, and has the 
odor of caramel, pour out and beat, mark as chocolate car- 
amel. 



474 HOUSEHOLD SCIENCE. 

Caramel Creams No. 2. 

Milk, one cup; sugar, one cup; molasses, one cup; 
chocolate, one square (grated) ; one tablespoonful of but- 
ter; one teaspoonful of vanilla. Put all the ingredients 
except the vanilla into a saucepan, and boil without stir- 
ring until it forms a soft ball when placed in cold water. 
Remove from the fire, and stir until it thickens. Then 
take into the hands and knead, working the vanilla into it. 
Form into balls, and after it has dried a little, dip in white 
fondant melted over hot water, and flavored with vanilla. 
Or when it thickens, pour quickly into a buttered dish and 
mark in squares. 

To Make Chocolate Creams. 

As soon as the white fondant is kneaded until soft and 
creamy, flavor it to taste with vanilla, and shape it into 
forms a little smaller than those found at the confec- 
tioner's stands, drop on parafnne paper, and let stand 
until they dry a very little, while you prepare the coating. 
Confectioners' chocolate gives a coating more satisfactory 
in appearance and flavor, but the common bakers' choco- 
late is very good. Grate the chocolate into a teacup. Place 
the cup in a basin of boiling water, or on the top of the 
teakettle, but see that no water gets into the cup. When 
melted, flavor with vanilla. Place a prepared cream on 
a fork or candy tongs, dip into the cup of melted choco- 
late, let drain slightly, and place on paraffine paper to 
dry. 

To Make Chocolate Almonds. 

Shell and blanch a pound of almonds, and dry them 
with a cloth. Put a teaspoonful of melted butter in a pan, 
and shake the almonds about until greased all over, then 
roast in the oven until a delicate brown. Melt together a 
half cup of fondant and one and one-half squares of 
grated chocolate. Stir until thoroughly mixed, and 
flavor with vanilla, if desired. Dip the almonds .^ame as 
chocolate creams, and dry on paraffine paper. Peanurs, 
walnuts, or pecans can be dipped in the same manner. 



HOME-MADE CANDIES. 475 

Marsh Mallows. 

One ounce of granulated gum arabic, cover with cold 
water and let soak one hour, then set the bowl containing 
it in hot water until the gum arabic is thoroughly dis- 
solved. Strain into double boiler and add one-half cup 
of granulated sugar and stir continually over the fire in 
the upper part of double boiler with water under it for 
at least twenty minutes. Take from the fire and beat un- 
til stiff and white. Return to the fire and allow to remain 
until hot, then add one teaspoonful of vanilla and the well- 
beaten whites of two eggs ; mix well together and pour 
into molds dusted well with powdered sugar. 
Fudge. 

One level teaspoonful of glucose, two cups of granu- 
lated sugar, one cup of milk or water, two tablespoonfuls 
of butter, two squares of chocolate (grated) and a dash 
of salt. Put all except the chocolate into a saucepan and 
boil until it will form a soft ball in cold water. Add the 
chocolate and as soon as it is melted remove from the 
fire, flavor with vanilla, beat well, pour into a greased 
mold, and when partly cool mark into squares. 
Cream. Candy. 

To one pound of granulated sugar allow one teaspoon- 
ful of vinegar, one teaspoonful of flavoring, one-half 
a teaspoonful of glucose, and one cupful of water. Boil 
the sugar, vinegar, water, and glucose together until it 
snaps when tested in water. Add the flavoring, pour out 
on a greased platter, and when cool enough to handle, pull 
until white. One-half teaspoonful of cream of tartar may 
be used instead of the glucose. 

Cream Candy No. 2. — Mrs. Clark. 

Four pounds of granulated sugar, one pint rich cream, 
one-half teaspoonful of salt, one pint of water. Let the 
sugar dissolve before it boils. After it begins to boil, 
pour the cream in slowly, so as not to stop the boiling, 
taking perhaps five minutes to put the cream in. Cook to 



476 HOUSEHOLD SCIENCE. 

cracking point (twenty to thirty minutes), so that, when 
dropped into water, the stick formed can be broken on 
the side of the bowl. Take off and pour on a slightly 
greased marble slab, and let cool. Lift from the slab a 
piece here and there with the fingers to facilitate cooling 
and pull until white and creamy. It will grain if pulled 
when warm. It is better after standing a few days. 

Cream Candy — (For Class Work.) 

One pound sugar, one-half cup cream, one-half cup of 
water. Proceed as in home rule. 

Wintergreen and Peppermint Creams. 

One and one-half cups sugar, one cup boiling water, 
cream of tartar one-half size of a pea. Boil to a soft ball, 
and treat same as fondant. When stirred to a proper con- 
sistency, color a delicate pink, and drop on oiled paper. 
For flavoring use six drops of peppermint or wintergreen 
for the above amount. 

Almond Creams. 

Shell and blanch almonds, and dip in fondant flavored 
with almond extract. 

Orange Creams. 

Make small flattened balls of white fondant, and flavor 
with orange and coat with orange-colored fondant. 

Creamed Dates. 

Take out date seeds, and fill the cavity with fondant, 
then cover with fondant. 

Bonbons. 

The centers of bonbons are made of fondant, shaped 
in small balls. These may be covered with chocolate, etc. 
When white is used, flavor as desired, vanilla is pre- 
ferred. Do not make coating too intense. May dip wal- 
nut kernels several times for bonbons, also dates, figs, al- 
monds and raisins. 

Tutti Frutti Candy. 

Put into the bottom of a greased pan a layer of maple 



HOME-MADE CANDIES. 477 

fondant, well mixed with nuts. Color the second layer 
with pink, flavor, and mix with it candied cherries cut in 
quarters, and figs chopped fine. Make the third layer 
white, flavor with vanilla, and mix with fine chopped 
cherries, candied nuts, and candied pineapple. Pour a 
thin layer of plain white fondant over the top. 

Stuffed Dates. 

Stuffed dates help to make variety. Remove the seeds 
from the dates and put in their places white rolls of 
fondant. Candied cherries are stuffed in the same way. 

Stuffed Raisms. 

Cut each raisin into two parts, and remove the seeds. 
Put in a small roll of fondant. Put the two parts to- 
gether again, dip the raisin in egg white, and roll in the 
small colored candies used for decorating cakes. 

Candied Nuts. 

Dip nut kernels into white or tinted fondant, and let 
harden on oiled paper. 

Uncooked Candies. 

The cooked candies are more desirable, but it is some- 
times more convenient to make the uncooked candies. 

Beat the white of an egg very stiff. Then add two 
tablespoonfuls of water. Put in enough powdered sugar 
to make a thick batter, and stir in cocoanut (grated 
fresh) until it can be handled. Roll into balls, dip in 
beaten egg, and cover the outside with as much cocoanut 
as can be made to adhere to it. 

Uncooked Chocolate Creams. 

Beat the white of one egg very stiff, and beat into it 

two tablespoonfuls of sweet cream. Stir in confectioners' 

sugar until very stiff. Form into balls with the hands, 

let dry a few minutes, and coat as chocolate creams. 

References: Cakes and Cake Decorations — King — Part 2; 
Candy Making — Catherine Owen; Buckeye Cook Book, p. 139; 
Philadelphia Cook Book — Rorer — p. 509. 
Boston Cooking' School Cook Book — Fanner — pp. 446 to 457. 



CHAPTER XXXVI. 

MISCELLANEOUS. 
To Stone Raisins. 

Put the raisins in a dish, and pour boiling water over 

them. Let stand until the seeds will slip, then pour the 

water off, take each raisin ,in the fingers, and force the 

seeds altogether at the stem end, and remove them. Dry 

same as currants. 

To Clean Currants. 

Put the currants in a colander, set it in a pan of water, 
and wash them, letting sand and stems pass into the 
water. Use as many different waters as seem necessary 
to clean them. When clean, put on a cloth, and dry in the 
air, stirring occasionally. 

To Procure Onion Juice. 

Peel the onion, cut in pieces, and use a lemon squeezer 
or a potato ricer to extract the juice. When using onion 
for sauces, etc., first peel the onion, then cut a slice from 
the end, and scrape with a kitchen knife, or score the 
onion both ways half way down, making the dice about 
one-eighth of an inch, and cut in thin slices with a sharp 
knife. Always put onion in vinegar when it must stand 
a short time in making salads. Never use an onion that 
has lain after cutting. Onions absorb odors readily, and 
are not wholesome after cut surfaces are exposed to the 
air. 

To Make a Thickening of Water and Flour. 

Measure the flour, add an equal amount of cold water, 
and stir until smooth ; then add more water, until it is 
thin as griddle cake batter. Now add carefully a little 
of the liquid to be thickened, and when very thin, pour 
slowly into the boiling liquid, stirring rapidly, and pour- 
ing slowly. In making a boiled custard, pour the boil- 



MISCELLANEOUS. 479 

ing milk over the beaten eggs in the same way to prevent 
lumping. 

To Open a Lobster. 

Never open a lobster until ready to use it. First re- 
move the large claws, then take off small claws. If you 
wish to use the shells, make an incision where the tail 
joins the body, turn the lobster breast up, place the 
thumb on the back and break the lobster, then cut along 
each side (inside the tail) and remove the meat, then 
break or cut along center of the meat on the upper side 
and remove vein, which may be red or green, very light 
or very dark . Now take out meat from body by running 
the fingers under and pulling up and removing, leaving 
the stomach or lady in the shell. Pull off the spongy 
fingers and take out the meat. If the shells are to be 
used trim and scrub and cut body shell in center. Spongy 
fingers are the lungs. 

To Clarify Mutton Fat. 

Free the mutton fat from all objectionable parts, and 
put to soak in enough cold water to cover. Let stand 
twenty-four hours and change the water once. Pour off 
the water in which the mutton fat has soaked and add one 
cup of liquid ^half milk and half water) for each pound 
of mutton fat, and cook until the liquid is evaporated, 
then strain out the clear fat and cool. This fat may be 
used for ginger snaps and ginger cake. 

To Cook a Lobster. 

Plunge head first into boiling salted water, and cnnk 
rapidly for twenty minutes, if the lobster is large; other- 
wise, a shorter time. A small lobster will cook in eight 
minutes. Too long cooking makes the meat tough. 

LUNCH DISHES. 
Sweetbreads and Mushrooms on Toast- 
Blanch the sweetbreads by allowing to lie in salted 
water for a time, then put to cook in boiling salted water, 



480 HOUSEHOLD SCIENCE. 

and let cook until tender. Let cool in the water in which 
they were cooked. Separate at the natural division lines, 
and free from inedible parts. Prepare a white sauce, 
using three-fourths of a cup of chicken or veal broth, and 
one-fourth of a cup of sweet cream. Put into a sauce- 
pan over the fire one and one-half level tablespoonfuls of 
flour, and one of butter. Stir until smooth, then add the 
liquid, and stir constantly, allowing to thicken, and then 
boil a few minutes. Season to taste, add the sweetbreads, 
and about one-sixth as many button mushrooms, let boil, 
pour over nicely-browned toast, and serve. 

Breast of Chicken in Cream. 

Tear out the breast of a cold boiled chicken in two 
parts. Make a sauce of chicken broth, flour and butter 
or milk thickened with flour and butter, same as for 
sweetbreads. Put the chicken breasts into it, boil up, and 
serve garnished with calf's liver cooked in chicken broth, 
and cut to resemble chicken livers. 

Boiled Tongue With Tomato Sauce. 

Freshen a tongue in cold water, then cook in boiling 
water until tender. Serve hot with a dressing made from 
strained tomatoes, to which the browning from the roast- 
ing pan has been added, using one-fourth as much brown- 
ing as tomato. Thicken same as tomato sauce for meats. 
Skewer the tip of the tongue to the base before cooking, 
to keep in place. 
Mock Terrapin. 

Make a brown sauce as follows: Put into a saucepan 
one and one-half tablespoonfuls of flour, and one of but- 
ter. Stir until a nice brown, then add one cup of beef 
broth, minus two tablespoonfuls, which have been mixed 
with one tablespoonful of flour. When the liquid boils, 
pour the mixture into it and cook until it thickens, then 
add cooked veal freed from hard parts and cut into small 
dice, and a few canned button mushrooms. Season to 
taste, and serve. 



MISCELLANEOUS. 481 

Luncheon Sweet Potatoes. 

Wash and steam sweet potatoes of equal and medium 
size. When tender, remove the skins and cut once length- 
wise. Mix together equal parts of butter and sugar, and 
add hot water to make of the consistency of thick cream. 
Lay the potatoes evenly in the baking dish, pour a portion 
of the sauce on each potato, and brown in the oven. Serve 
in the dish in which they were baked. 
Macaroni or Spaghetti in Tomato Cups. 

Select ripe, red tomatoes of medium and uniform size, 
cut off the blossom end one-third of the way down, and 



Baking Dish. 

scoop out the inside. Cut out the core, and mix the re- 
mainder with spaghetti, which has been broken in three- 
inch lengths, and steamed for three hours. Use three 
parts of boiling water to each part (cup) of spaghetti, 
and one teaspoonful of salt to each pint of liquid. 
Sprinkle salt and pepper over the scooped tomato, as if 
it were to be eaten raw, stir in a teaspoonful of butter, 
take equal parts of tomato and spaghetti, .mix. well,,. and 
fill the cups. Cover the tops with buttered crumbs, and 
bake about fifteen minutes, but do not allow the cups to 
become too soft. 

16 



482 HOUSEHOLD SCIENCE. 

Scalloped Oysters. 

Wash fresh oysters, drain through a colander, and 
free them from shells. Season bread crumbs with salt, 
pepper, and butter, the same as for chicken dressing. 
Then place in the platter in which the oysters are to be 
served a layer of crumbs and a layer of oysters, until 3^011 
have two layers of oysters. Then put in a part of a layer 
of oysters, and round up the dish. Finish with a layer of 
crumbs, and place in the oven. Twenty minutes is usu- 
ally required to bake them. 

Creamed Oysters. 

Make a thick white sauce as for croquettes, put in the 
oysters, and let cook until the edges curl. Serve hot. 

Oyster Patties. 

Make a white sauce, using one tablespoonful of butter 
and two of flour, and one-half cup of whole milk. Sea- 
son to taste with salt and pepper, put in the oysters, al- 
lowing three to each patty, and let cook until the edges 
curl. Fill the patties with them. 

Oyster and Mushroom Patties. 

One-half a can of mushrooms, about two dozen oysters, 
one tablespoonful of lemon juice. Free the oysters from 
shells, put into the saucepan, and cook until plump, then 
dip the oysters out. Add the mushroom liquor to this 
and sweet cream enough to make two cups. Thicken with 
six tablespoonfuls of flour and three of butter, add the 
mushrooms, and when the sauce is cooked, add the oys- 
ters, and let boil. Season, and fill patty cases. 

Panned Oysters. 

Butter, salt, and pepper the pan, and when hot, put in 
the oysters. Shake quickly over the fire, and turn onto 
hot toast. Or they may be served without toast. 

Creamed Lobster. 

In creamed lobster use more pepper than usual, and use 
a little mustard to tone down the flavor. Mix mustard 



MISCELLANEOUS. 483 

with salt. May use also one hard-boiled egg to each 
cup of diced lobster, as this improves the flavor. 

Meat Pie With Potato Crust. 

Cut cold meat into small cubes or thin slices. Pour 
over it meat gravy, tomato or brown sauce. Spread 
a crust of mashed potato over the meat. Sprinkle with 
bread crumbs, and bake twenty minutes, or until brown. 

Meat Pie With Macedoine Sauce. 

Use cold meat, sliced thin, and cut into small pieces. 
Put this into the dish you wish to serve it in, cover meat 
with Macedoine sauce, and over this put a layer of mashed 
potatoes one-half inch thick. Cover this with seasoned, 
buttered bread crumbs, and bake until a nice brown. 

Meat Pie With Tomato Sauce. 

Use cold meat, sliced thin, and cut into small pieces. 
Put the meat into the dish you wish to serve it in, cover 
meat with tomato sauce, and over this put a layer of 
mashed potatoes one-half an inch thick. Cover this with 
seasoned bread crumbs, and bake until a nice brown. 

Meat Pie With Rice Crust. 

Boil rice in salted water and drain. Prepare meat as 
for hash, and to each pint of meat which has been pre- 
pared, add one beaten egg and sufficient broth or gravy 
to moisten. Put the mixture into a buttered dish, cover 
top with rice, and this with buttered bread crumbs and 
bake. 

Beet Croquettes. 

Two good-sized beets, one cup of milk, three level ta- 
blesoonfuls of butter, six level tablespoonfuls of flour, one- 
half teaspoonful of paprika, one teaspoonful of salt, one- 
fourth teaspoonful of mace, one teaspoonful of onion 
juice. Make the butter, flour, and milk into a sauce, put 
in the seasoning. Chop the beets fine, and moisten with 
the sauce. Form into croquettes, let cool, coat, and fry 
in deep fat. Serve with a sauce. 



484 HOUSEHOLD SCIENCE. 

Sauce for Croquettes. 

Two level tablespoonfuls of flour, two level table- 
spoonfuls of butter, one cup of milk, one-half teaspoon- 
ful of paprika, one-fourth teaspoonful of salt, flavor with 
one drop of onion juice. 

Lobster Croquettes or Cutlets. 

Make sauce with two tablespoonfuls of butter, three 
tablespoonfuls of flour, and one cup of milk. Season with 
salt, pepper, mustard, and lemon juice. Add one pint of 
diced lobster, and spread on a platter to cool. When 
cool, shape into cutlets or croquettes, roll in bread crumbs, 
then in beaten eggs, then in crumbs again, and fry in hot 
fat. Serve with mock bisque sauce. 

Croquettes, like oysters, require very hot fat, because 
easily cooked. When the food is taken from the fat, put 
in a piece of potato. Never leave hot fat with nothing in 
it for an instant. 

Mock Bisque Sauce. 

From two-thirds of a cup of strained tomato, one table- 
spoonful of butter, and one tablespoonful of flour, make 
a sauce. When cooked, remove from the stove, and stir 
into it one-third of a cup of sweet cream (putting in only 
a few drops at a time), and stirring constantly. Season 
with salt and pepper, and serve with lobster croquettes. 

Rice Croquettes. 

Cook the rice in the double boiler, using three times as 
much boiling water as rice, salt to taste, flavor with 
orange, and mix with white sauce. To half a pint of rice 
use the white of an egg and a few drops of orange ex- 
tract, half a teaspoonful of butter, and a teaspoonful of 
cream. Form into balls, coat with egg, roll in cracker 
crumbs, coat again with egg, and fry in deep fat until a 
good brown. Or they may be made by simply mixing 
the drained rice with e'g'g 'white, using one egg to each 
cup- of rice. Coat and 'fry as feieSore: 



MISCELLANEOUS. 485 

Sauce for Serving Rice Croquettes. 

To one cup of fruit juice, strawberry, blackberry, or 
raspberry, add one-half cup of sugar in which has been 
mixed one level tablespoonful of cornstarch or two level 
teaspoonfuls of arrowroot, boil until it thickens and 
serve with the croquettes. Water may be used instead 
of fruit juice and fresh fruit cut in pieces and put in 
while the sauce is hot. 

Chicken Croquettes. 

One-half cup of chicken, chopped very fine, one-fourth 
teaspoonful of salt, one-fourth teaspoonful of celery salt, 
a dash of cayenne pepper, one-sixth of a teaspoonful of 
white pepper, two drops of onion juice, one-half tea- 
spoonful of parsley, chopped fine, one-half teaspoonful 
of lemon juice. Mix with this white sauce to make the 
croquettes as soft as it is possible to handle them. Form 
into shapes desired, roll in egg slightly beaten with two 
tablespoonfuls of water or milk, then in crumbs (very 
fine), again in the egg, then again in crumbs, and fry in 
deep fat until a nice brown. They can be handled more 
easily if, before forming, the meat and sauce, mixed to- 
gether, be spread on a plate and allowed to cool. 

Cream Sauce for Mixing Croquettes. 

One-half cup of broth or whole milk (chicken or veal 
broth is used), one level tablespoonful butter, two level 
tablespoonfuls flour, one-eighth of a teaspoonful of salt, 
one-eighth teaspoonful of celery salt, one-eighth teaspoon- 
ful of pepper, a speck of cayenne pepper. 

Serve the chicken croquettes with mushroom or 
bechamel sauce, or with mock bisque or cream sauce. 

Mushroom Sauce. 

Mushroom sauce is made by adding one tablespoonful 
of lemon juice to one cup cream sauce, also one-half cup 
cooked mushrooms cut in pieces. Brown sauce may be 
used instead of white. 



486 HOUSEHOLD SCIENCE. 

Bechamel Sauce. 

Bechamel sauce is made by making white sauce with 
clear stock and cream, instead of milk, and is highly sea- 
soned. One whole egg, or two beaten yolks, are added 
just before serving. 

Potato Croquettes. 

One cup of mashed potatoes, one-half tablespoonful of 
butter, very little pepper, both white and cayenne, one- 
fourth of a teaspoonful of salt, one-fourth of a teaspoon- 
ful of celery salt, two drops of onion juice. Form into 
croquettes, let cool, coat, and fry. 

Meat and Rice Croquettes. 

Use equal parts of cold boiled rice and finely hashed 
meat. Mix together, season with pepper and salt, make 
as moist with white sauce as a chicken croquette, form 
into balls, let cool, roll in egg and fine bread crumbs, and 
fry in deep fat. These are very nice moistened with a 
tomato sauce instead of a white sauce. 

To Saute Meat Croquettes. 

Either meat or rice and meat croquettes may be made 
into fiat cakes, rolled in egg, then in bread crumbs, and 
sauted in clarified butter or bacon fat. Brown nicely on 
each side and serve hot. 

Rice and Sausage Hash. 

Mix together equal parts of cold sausage and cold 
boiled rice. Mix with this enough unseasoned white 
sauce or left-over gravy to make it cling together. Butter 
the omelet pan, and dust with bread crumbs. Place in 
this the hash, press down with a knife, and cover. When 
it is brown on the bottom, and thoroughly heated through, 
fold like an omelet, turn onto a warm platter, and serve 
hot. 
Potato Hash. 

Finely hashed cold boiled potatoes, seasoned with salt, 
pepper, parsley, and onions, if desired. To this add 



MISCELLANEOUS. 487 

enough white sauce or cold gravy to make the particles 
cling together, but not enough to make a mushy mass. 
Put into an omelet pan prepared as for sausage hash and 
cook in the same way. Or use as much stale diced bread 
as you have potatoes, put together, and cook as potato 
hash. 

Fish Hash. 

Melt a tablespoonful of butter in a saucepan, add one 
cup of water or milk, and two cups of any kind of cold 
fresh fish, freed from skin and bones, and picked into 
small pieces. Season to taste, simmer five minutes, and 
serve on slices of dipped toast. Hard-boiled eggs may al- 
ways be added to hashed fish, also a flavoring of minced 
parsley, if liked. Any fish sauce left over from a previous 
meal may be used instead of milk or water for moistening 
the hash. 

Family Hash. 

To prepare the spider for hash, grease well, and cover 
lightly with bread crumbs. If meat is tough, simmer until 
tender. Mix chicken, veal, and sweetbreads, but better 
not have lamb or mutton. Use more potato than meat, 
season well, and moisten with gravy or white sauce, and 
cook fifteen minutes, or long enough to form a nice brown 
crust at bottom. 

Hash Cakes. 

One cup of cold, hashed meat, one cup of cold mashed 
potatoes, one egg, beaten light. Mix all together, season 
to taste with salt and pepper, form into balls or cakes, and 
brown in a hot frying pan containing a little fat of some 
kind. 

Beef Hash in Tomato Cups. 

Use cold beef, hashed quite fine, and cold hashed, boil- 
ed potatoes in equal parts. Season with salt and pepper, 
and a little butter. Wash and wipe firm, ripe tomatoes. 
Cut them in half, and take out the inside, and fill the shell 



488 HOUSEHOLD SCIENCE. 

with hash. Cover the top with buttered crumbs, and bake 
in a dripping pan in a medium hot oven, until hash is hot. 

Turkey and Oyster Hash. 

Cut cold boiled or roast turkey into pieces as large as 
medium-sized oysters. Use turkey or chicken broth. Put 
two or more cups of the prepared meat into a saucepan, 
and enough of the broth to cover it. Set on the back of 
the range, and let simmer until tender. Cook in another 
saucepan two tablespoonfuls each of butter and flour until 
well mixed, but not brown. Add two cups of the turkey 
broth, and let simmer five minutes. Add a pint of oys- 
ters, rinsed and drained. Stir gently with a wooden 
spoon, and as soon as the edges curl and separate add the 
turkey meat, season to taste, and serve with or without 
toast. 

Hashed Brown Potatoes. 

Scatter one teaspoonful of bread crumbs over a buttered 
omelet pan before putting the potatoes into it. Use white 
sauce to moisten the potatoes, but do not make too moist, 
season with salt and pepper. Fry until brown on the bot- 
tom, and fold like an omelet. 

Apple Toast. 

Toast slices of bread a nice brown. Make an apple 
sauce, and put a layer of buttered toast into the dish, 
cover with apple sauce, then put in another layer, and 
cover it. Let the toast and apple sauce both be hot when 
put together, and serve hot. 

Egg Toast. 

Cut slices of stale bread about half an inch thick, and 
toast a delicate brown. Pour boiling water into a shallow 
basin, dip the toast in this water, turn over, lay on a warm 
plate, and spread with butter. Chop hard-boiled eggs, 
sprinkle with salt and pepper, and spread over the toast. 

Riced Egg on Toast. 

Prepare the toast as above. Shell the egg, put in a. 
potato ricer, and squeeze over the top of the toast. 



MISCELLANEOUS. 489 

Dry Toast. 

Cut slices of dry bread about half an inch thick. Dry 
the surface somewhat, either in the oven or over the fire, 
before the slice is browned. Toast should be of a golden 
brown color on the outside, and crisp and dry. Fresh 
bread which is carbonized on the outside, and clammy 
within, is not what a wise person would call toast, or offer 
to his stomach when it needed toast. 

Tomato Toast. 

Strain two-thirds of a cup of tomato, and put to heat in 
a graniteware saucepan; when hot, turn into a bowl, rinse 
the saucepan, and wipe dry. Then put into it one table- 
spoonful of butter and the same of flour. Stir the 
flour and butter together as they heat, and do not allow 
to brown. To this add half a cup of whole milk, and let 
cook until it thickens. Season both this and the tomato 
with salt and pepper. Add the tomato to the white sauce, 
pouring slowly, and stirring constantly, and as soon as 
mixed pour over nicely toasted slices of bread, and serve. 

Meat Souffle. 

Make one-half a cup of white sauce, and season same 
as for hash. Stir into it one-half cup of chopped meat, 
— chicken, tongue, veal, or lamb. Make boiling hot, and 
stir into it the beaten yolk of one egg. Let cool, and when 
cold stir in the white of the egg, beaten stiff. Bake in a 
buttered dish slowly until done, and serve in the dish in 
which it was cooked. The souffle may be seasoned with 
parsley and onion, in addition to the salt and pepper, if 
desired. All seasonings should be stirred into the white 
sauce before it is added to the meat. The souffle may 
be served with mushroom sauce. 

Meat Souffle— Class Rule. 

One-fourth cup of white sauce, one-fourth cup of chop- 
ped meat, one-half egg yolk (well beaten), one-half egg 
white (well beaten). Make and bake same as directed 
in home rule. 



490 HOUSEHOLD SCIENCE. 

Escalloped Beef. 

Cut cold roast beef or steak into dice, and cook slowly 
in a very small amount of water until tender. Cook to- 
gether, until brown, one-half tablespoonful each of butter 
and flour, and add one-half cup of soup stock or water 
from the roasting pan, and two tablespoonfuls of strained 
tomato. Pour over the meat in the dish in which it is to 
be served enough to make quite moist, cover with but- 
tered crumbs, and bake in the oven. 

Escalloped Beef With Macaroni. 

One-fourth cup of cold beef, cut into dice, one-fourth 
cup of macaroni, cut into inch lengths, one-half cup of 
strained tomato, two level teaspoonfuls of flour, two level 
teaspoonfuls of butter. Make into a sauce, and season. 
Pour the sauce over the beef and macaroni. Mix together 
and boil up. Put into a shallow baking dish, cover with 
buttered crumbs, and brown in the oven. 

Frizzled Beef. 

Place one tablespoonful of butter in a frying pan, and 
when hot, not browned, put in one-half pint of dried beef, 
sliced very thin. Cook a few minutes over a hot fire, so 
the beef will curl up, then dredge over it one and one- 
half tablespoonfuls of flour. Stir and let brown slightly, 
then pour in one-half pint of sweet milk, and cook till it 
thickens. Pepper to taste. Serve on toast, or without 
toast. 

Escalloped Mutton. 

Prepare in same way as escalloped beef, except leave 
out the tomatoes, and use more mutton broth in their place. 

Cubes of Veal in Mushroom Sauce. 

One cup of veal cubes, one-half cup of mushrooms, one 
hard-boiled egg, one level teaspoonful of butter, one level 
teaspoonful of flour, one-half cup of milk, one-half cup of 
veal broth. Make a white sauce. Season to taste, add the 
veal and chopped egg, and serve hot. 



MISCELLANEOUS. 491 

Creamed Hamburg on Toast. 

One-half cup of milk, two teaspoonfuls flour, two tea- 
spoonfuls butter, one- fourth cup (scant) chopped, fresh 
meat. Heat the butter and flour together, and pour the 
cold milk over it. Cook four or five minutes, stirring all 
the time, and add the meat. Let boil, and serve. 

Creamed Codfish With Evaporated Cream. 

One tablespoonful of butter, two tablespoonfuls flour, 
one cup shredded codfish, stirred in one cup of cold water, 
and drained. Use in sauce one-half cup of evaporated 
cream, and one-half cup of water. Heat butter and flour 
together, pour the liquid over it. Cook four or five min- 
utes, stirring constantly, and add the codfish. Boil, and 
serve. 

Codfish Balls. 

Soak the codfish, and prepare the same as for creamed 
codfish. Take two measures of mashed potato to one 
of the prepared codfish. Mix the codfish and potato, 
break an egg into this, beat with a spoon until thoroughly 
mixed, form into balls and fry in deep fat. 

Pressed Chicken. 

Boil a fowl in as little water as possible until the gristly 
portions are soft, and the bones slip out. Remove all 
objectionable portions, and chop the two pounds of 
veal, which has been boiled with the fowl. Butter a dish, 
and spread in a thin layer over the bottom, the hashed veal, 
which has been seasoned and mixed with a portion of the 
chicken stock, boiled down one-fourth. Put in strips, al- 
ternately, of the white and dark meat portions of the 
chicken, and thin slices of ham and red tongue. Put in 
another layer of hash, and alternate with the strips of 
meat, hard-boiled eggs, cut lengthwise, and laid cut side 
down. Lastly put on a layer of hash. Set away to cool 
with a weight on the dish. 



492 HOUSEHOLD SCIENCE. 

Chicken Terrapin. 

One pint of chicken, diced, or one and one-half pints, if 
minced, one level tablespoonful of butter, one level table- 
spoonful of flour, one-fourth cup of cream, one-fourth cup 
of chicken broth or milk, giblets of chicken, minced fine, 
one-eighth of teaspoonful of mace, cloves, and red pepper, 
all powdered, and about equal parts, one-half tablespoon- 
ful of lemon juice and currant jelly, mixed, three drops of 
extract of lemon. Mix the seasoning with the flour. 
Make the white sauce, mix the meat with it, and let boil. 
Serve on toast. 

Eggs in Anchovy Sauce. 

One cup of milk, two level tablespoonfuls of flour, two 
level tablespoonfuls of butter. Make a white sauce. Use 
one teaspoonful to three of anchovy paste, as liked. 
Moisten toast with milk, mix the paste with the white 
sauce, lay the sliced eggs on the toast, and pour the sauce 
over it. 

Creamed Eggs. 

Cook two hard-boiled eggs, cut whites in half, remove 
yolks, and set these small cups on a platter. Mash the 
yolks, and add to them one-third as much seasoned bread 
crumbs, moisten with white sauce, shape into balls with 
spoon, and place a ball in each white cup. Pour the 
white sauce on and around them on the platter, cover with 
seasoned bread crumbs, set in oven, and brown. Serve on 
the platter on which they are baked. 

White sauce: One teaspoonful butter, two teaspoon- 
fuls flour, one-half cup milk, cooked together. 

Timbales. 

One and one-half cups of flour, one cup of milk, one 
tgg, well beaten, one-half teaspoonful of salt, stir until 
thoroughly mixed. To fry the timbales, put the batter 
into a teacup, heat the timbale iron in the fat, and when 
hot enough to cause the batter to adhere, lower the iron 
into the cup of batter to within one-half inch of the top, 



MISCELLANEOUS. 493 

then put into the hot fat, and fry until the cup slips from 
the iron. 

Minced chicken, turkey, or veal with white sauce are 
good to fill the timbale cups. To make a large timbale, 
butter a dish, and line it with cooked rice, then put in the 
minced meat, and bake until the rice is a nice brown. A 
tomato sauce may be used with the meat (in this case) 
instead of the white sauce. 

Deviled Meats. 

Deviled meats are like scalloped meats, except they are 
more highly seasoned, and cut finer. 

Giblets With Mushrooms. 

Cook chicken giblets, and chop them, or cut into dice. 
Make a brown sauce (page 517) of chicken or veal broth, 
with the mushroom liquor added from half a can of mush- 
rooms. Put the giblets and mushrooms in, let it boil, 
season, and serve. 

Mock Fate de Fois Gras. 

One calf's liver, one calf's tongue, one teaspoonful 
of cayenne pepper, one-fourth of a nutmeg, one-half tea- 
spoonful of cloves, one teaspoonful Worcestershire sauce, 
one teaspoonful of onion juice. Cook the liver in boiling 
salted water until tender, let cool and grate. Mix the 
seasoning with the liver, mashing it very fine. Put in 
a dish alternate layers of liver and tongue, cut in small, 
thin slices to resemble truffles. 
Turkish Filaf. 

Strained and seasoned tomato, one cup ; stock, one cup ; 
rice, two-thirds cup; butter, one-half cup; salt, one tea- 
spoonful ; pepper, one-fourth teaspoonful. Cook one pint 
of tomatoes with one small chopped onion, one sprig of 
parsley, two cloves, and two pepper corns ten minutes, 
and strain. This gives the one cup of tomato. Wash the 
rice through three waters, and put in top of double boiler. 
Add stock, tomato, salt, and pepper. Steam one hour, or 
until the rice is tender and dry. Put the butter in bits on 



494 HOUSEHOLD SCIENCE. 

top. Do not stir, but cover with a towel, let stand to ab- 
sorb all moisture (ten minutes), and serve. 

Stuffed Onions. 

Remove the husks from medium-sized, perfect onions. 
Cut off about one-third of the onions at the top, and re- 
move the inner part, leaving only a shell or cup. Fill this 
with finely hashed meat and potato, in equal parts, sea- 
soned with pepper and salt, and moistened with cold 
gravy. Cover the top with bread crumbs seasoned 
with salt, pepper, and butter. Place in a dripping pan, 
and bake in not too hot an oven until the onion is soft, 
but not cooked enough to mush or break. Serve hot for 
luncheon or supper. 

Stale Bread Griddle Cakes. 

Use crusts and ends of bread for this. Put the stale 
bread in a bowl, and pour over it as much hot sweet milk 
as it will absorb. Let stand over night, then mash 
through the colander, and add half as much flour as there 
is pulp, and mix as other griddle cakes with sweet milk. 
To make with soda, soak the bread in buttermilk, and 
proceed as for griddle cakes with soda. 

Stale Bread Griddle Cakes Class Kule. 

One cup of coarse bread crumbs, one-half cup of milk, 
one-fourth cup of flour, one-fourth teaspoonful of baking 
powder, one-half teaspoonful of fat (butter or lard), one 
teaspoonful of beaten egg. Pour the cold milk over the 
crumbs and let soak until soft, then press through a 
puree sieve. Add the flour, salt, shortening and egg and 
beat well with the spoon, then add the baking powder in 
a teaspoonful of saved-out flour. If sour milk is used, 
add one-fourth teaspoonful of soda instead of baking 
powder with the teaspoonful of flour. 

Left-Over Meat Sauce. 

Sauce for reheating dark meats : Sweet corn, strained 
tomatoes, and clear soup in equal quantities form a basis 
for a brown sauce for reheating dark meats. Strain 



MISCELLANEOUS. 495 

sauce before using, then cut into it hard-boiled eggs, as 
liked. Thicken the sauce as for creamed potatoes. 

Tomato Sauce. 

One cup of strained tomato, one tablespoonful butter, 
one tablespoonful flour. Heat the butter and flour to- 
gether, pour in the cold tomatoes, and cook four or five 
minutes. 
Sauce for Escalloped Dishes, 

One-fourth cup of whole milk, one teaspoonful of flour, 
two teaspoonfuls of butter. Make sauce of these, and 
season to taste with salt and pepper. 

Escalloped Chicken, etc. 

One-fourth cup of chicken or veal cut in small dice, 
one-eighth cup of cooked egg (left over in whatever man- 
ner cooked), cut equally fine, one-eighth of a cup of 
cooked rice. Add to the sauce, boil up, and serve on 
dipped toast. 

Horseradish Sauce. 

Two tablespoonfuls of horseradish, two tablespoonfuls 
of fine bread crumbs, one tablespoonful of vinegar. Heat 
all together, and season with salt and pepper. 

Made Mustard for Cold Meats. 

Best mustard, one and one-half level tablespoonfuls ; 
sugar, one level tablespoonful ; salt, one-half teaspoonful ; 
vinegar, one-fourth cup; butter, one teaspoonful. Mix 
ingredients, and cook until it thickens, then add the yolk 
of one &gg, well beaten, cool, and use. 

Chicken Pie. 

Pick the chicken from the bones and cut into small 
pieces. Make a sauce by using half chicken broth and 
half sweet milk thickened with flour. Make a crust same 
as for shortcake, line the baking dish with the crust, fill 
with paper, lay the upper crust on and bake ; when done, 
remove the top crust and take out the paper. Fill the 
crust with hot chicken and sauce, replace the top crust, 
and serve. 



496 HOUSEHOLD SCIENCE. 

Chicken Pie — Class Rule. 

One-fourth cup of chicken cut in pieces as desired, one- 
fourth cup of milk and one-half cup of broth, thickened 
with two teaspoonfuls of flour mixed with two teaspoon- 
fuls of milk, cook until it thickens, season with salt and a 
very little pepper, put in the chicken, let come to a boil, 
and fill the crust. 

Children's Parties. 

Small children enjoy things which are out of the usual 
in form, size and color. The refreshments for a chil- 
dren's party should be simple, but attractive and palata- 
ble. They should consist of such things as are least lia- 
ble to disturb the digestion, for children exercise little dis- 
crimination in eating. Oranges peeled, divided into the 
natural divisions and served in orange baskets, or orange 
cups, afford the child far more pleasure than do oranges 
in their natural form. 

A bird or animal cooky is much better, to their taste, 
than a common, round one. 

Sandwiches made of bread cut very thin and buttered, 
with a lettuce leaf laid between the slices so that its green 
color shows through the thin slices and its curly edge 
shows on the border are attractive and wholesome. With 
the aid of a biscuit cutter one can make sandwich moons 
and crescents with little trouble and waste. A kitchen 
knife is the only tool necessary to enable one to make 
sandwiches in the form of stars, diamonds, triangles, etc. 
The child enjoys a sandwich made of buttered bread with 
chopped nuts between. 

Either angel cake or sponge cake is more wholesome 
than butter cake, and can be made equally attractive by 
frosting and decorating as desired. Simply a white 
frosting with the name and age, or the birth date in col- 
ored letters, pleases the small child. This may be done 
by tracing the letters with a colored frosting, or with 
small colored candies. 



MISCELLANEOUS. 



4<>7 



Butter cake mixtures may be baked in tiny pans and 
dipped in frosting. Cookies and ginger snaps may be cut 
in fancv shapes and decorated with colored frostings. 
Those who object to using the colors sold as vegetable 




Child's Breakfast. 



colorings and used for tinting candies, frostings, etc., can 
easily make a sufficient variety of colorings at home. 
Green coloring can be made by tying spinach leaves loose- 



498 HOUSEHOLD SCIENCK 

ly in cheese cloth, placing the package in a vegetable ricer 
and squeezing. After the juice is boiled to the consist- 
ency of syrup it is ready for use. Pink coloring may be 
obtained by boiling a mature beet, being sure that the skin 
is not broken in any part and leaving the top on. When 
done, rub the skin off in cold water, cut the beet into 
bits, put through a vegetable ricer and then through 
cheese cloth, and use same as spinach coloring. 

To make yellow frosting, put a raw egg yolk into a cup 
and put into it four times as much powdered sugar as 
egg and beat until thick as frosting should be, flavor and 
use. 

Little souvenirs may be made into a birthday pie by 
tying a ribbon with a card bearing the name of the child 
for which the trinket is intended attached to the end of it. 
These packages may be placed in a pretty basket and a 
dainty doily or napkin thrown over it. Let the children 
gather about the table on which the basket is placed and 
have each child find his own piece of pie by looking for a 
card with his name on it, when each has found his own 
name uncover the pie and let each child pull out his piece 
by the ribbon attached. 

Little children find pleasure also in having a play post- 
office behind a screen in a corner of the room, where they 
may go and ask for their special parcel. 

Popcorn Balls. 

Pop a basin of corn. Remove all hard and partially 
popped grains. Boil molasses until it will hair, pour it 
over the popped corn, which has been sprinkled with 
salt. Use only enough molasses to make the corn stick 
together. Form into balls or pack in a pan greased with 
butter. If packed in a pan, set to cool, then turn out and 
cut into shapes desired. One-fourth as much sugar as 
molasses and a little butter may be used in the syrup, in 
the proportion of one teaspoonful of butter to one cup of 
syrup. 



MISCELLANEOUS. 499 

Tinted Popcorn Balls. 

Make same as above, except use white sugar instead of 
molasses and color slightly with red vegetable coloring. 

Popcorn Cake. 

Pop the corn and allow it to become cold, then roll 
with a rolling pin to break the grains somewhat, or grind 
the corn in coffee mill, pour over it a mixture prepared 
same as for popcorn balls, but use a little more than for 
balls. Pack in a narrow pan, and when cold and firm, 
slice. 
Popcorn and Nut Cake. 

Make same as popcorn cake except add one-third as 
much chopped nuts as shelled corn. Use hazel nuts, pea- 
nuts or walnuts. Children enjoy plain popcorn with milk 
or cream. 
Hints for Busy Housekeepers. 

Regularity with regard to meals saves time, health, pa- 
tience and money. 

Success or failure depends on the manner of doing the 
many small things which form the sum total of our 
housework. 

"There is no substitute for thorough going, for ardent 
and sincere earnestness in the home." — Dickens. 

Vinegar cruets should be cleaned inside by filling with 
ammonia water, lye water, or with water containing a 
little baking soda, allowing them to soak, and then washing 
well with soapsuds. 

Water bottles can be cleaned by filling with vinegar, 
allowing to soak well and washing in soapsuds and 
wiping dry and polishing with a soft cloth. 

For cleaning the inside of a glass lamp use lye or strong 
soapsuds and soak several hours. The mixture should be 
as hot as can be used. 

To prevent oil gathering on the outside of the lamp, 
turn the wick below the tube before setting the lamp 
away. 



500 HOUSEHOLD SCIENCE. 

To clean lamp burners and wicks, boil in a strong solu- 
tion of soap, water, and kerosene, then rinse and wipe 
dry. 

Lamp flues may often be successfully cleaned by plac- 
ing the hand over the lower end, blowing into the chim- 
ney, then wiping inside with a soft paper or cloth. 

An old stiff tooth brush is useful in removing* the 
charred portion from a lamp wick. 

Egg stains can be removed from silver by rubbing with 
salt on a damp cloth. 

Generally speaking, the temperature of cold storage 
rooms is about 34° F. 

Tender fruits to be kept in cold storage for a few days 
should be just ripe; they will keep better than when un- 
der-ripe. — Siebel. 

Green fruits and vegetables should not be allowed to 
wither. 

Sour fruit will bear less cold than sweet fruit. 

Frozen fish must necessarily lose some of their juices 
in cooking and should be used only in the close season 
when fresh fish cannot be obtained. 

June butter is best, if one must have butter packed and 
stored. 

Frozen oysters should never be used. 

Eggs to be stored for use later must be strictly fresh, 
all bad ones culled out by candling. 

Eggs will absorb bad odors and should not be stored 
with cheese or other articles exhaling a strong odor. 

All foul air in storage rooms must be removed by ven- 
tilation if the best results are secured. 

To keep meat fresh, hang in a cold, dry place and allow 
the air to circulate freely about it. 

When frozen meat must be used, it should be thawed 
very gradually. 

All green vegetables should be bright and crisp. 

When buying eggs choose those which are heavy in 
proportion to size. 

Mushrooms have a fine flavor, but small food value. 



APPENDIX. 

To Remove Onion Odor from Hands. 

Rub the hands thoroughly with salt, then wash them 
in clear water. 

To Remove Stains from Egg Shells. 

When eggs have become stained as they often do from 
lying in the nest with damp hay or grass the shells may be 
made bright and clean by soaking the egg over night in 
milk, either sweet or sour, then washing in clear water. 

To Make Dry Yeast. 

The following formula makes two gallons of yeast be- 
fore dried : 

Put one pint of loose hops in a saucepan, and pour one 
pint of boiling water over them and let steep ten minutes. 
Strain the hop water and pour one cup of it into a bowl, 
and while it is still hot add flour enough to make a thick 
batter. Have the yeast ready and use two cakes of com- 
pressed yeast mixed with a little water or one whole pack- 
age of yeast foam soaked in water until soft. When the 
hop batter is just luke warm stir the yeast and sugar into 
it, set aside and let rise over night. In the morning stir 
into it five freshly boiled and finely mashed good sized 
potatoes and a teaspoonful of salt. Thicken with corn 
meal and dry at once in a current of air. This yeast will 
make very good bread if used fresh. 

Fruit Salpicon. 

Juice of one and one-half lemons. 
Pulp of two good oranges. 
Scant half cup of sugar. 
Two cups of water (cold). 

Two large, mellow, fine-flavored peaches, pared and 
cut in small pieces. 



502 HOUSEHOLD SCIENCE. 

Two heaping tablespoonfuls of shredded pineapple. 

Half a cup of small green grapes, ripe, of course, but 
green in color and mild in flavor. Malaga grapes halved 
and seeded are most excellent, but too large to use whole. 

A fourth of a cup of strawberry juice may be added 
and two or three fine strawberries served in each cup if 
desired. When this is done the grapes shoud be omitted. 
Put the ingredients together and let stand in a cold place 
over night but do not allow to freeze. Serve in sherbet 
cups or scoop small canteloupes and serve the salpicon in 
the shells set on a grape leaf placed on a small plate. 

Raspberry Sponge Cake. 

. Three whole eggs beaten separately, one cup of sugar, 
two tablespoonfuls of cold water, two teaspoonfuls of vin- 
egar, one-fourth teaspoonful of salt, two level teaspoon- 
fuls baking powder, one cup flour. Beat yolks of eggs 
until thick and lemon colored ; add the sugar, and beat it 
in with a spoon ; add vinegar and water and salt, and 
stir until mixed; then add all except two tablespoonfuls 
of flour, and beat until well mixed ; then add remainder 
of flour and baking powder, mixed well. Bake in pie 
tins, in two or three layers. Bake in a moderate oven 
until done, but not shrunken. 
Filling for Raspberry Sponge Cake. 

Put two cups of ripe red raspberries into a bowl, and 
add to them one-fourth cup of red currants washed and 
stemmed ; add enough sugar to sweeten, and mash and 
stir all together. Let set half an hour, and spread be- 
tween layers and over top of cake just before serving. 
Serve without cream. 
Plain Cake — Chocolate Frosting. 

One-fourth cup of butter, one and one-half level tea- 
spoonfuls of baking powder, one-half cup of sugar, one 
egg, one-half cup of milk, one and one-half cups of flour. 
Cream the butter by stirring until soft and pliable; then 
add the sugar a little at a time, and stir until the mixture 



APPENDIX. 503 

is perfectly light and white ; break the egg into this, and 
stir until well mixed; then add a little flour, and stir 
until incorporated; add a little milk, and treat in same 
way until all are used, except two tablespoonf uls of flour ; 
mix the baking powder thoroughly with this, and stir it 
in last. Put into a shallow greased pan, and bake thirty 
minutes in a moderate oven. 

Chocolate Frosting. 

Boil one cup of sugar with one-half cup of water to 
the hairing stage. Put one and one-half squares of grated 
chocolate into a bowl, and set over the hot teakettle (re- 
moving cover) when the syrup is put to cook, that it 
may be melted when syrup has reached the hairing stage. 
When syrup is ready, take from the fire, and pour over the 
melted chocolate, and stir until thoroughly mixed. Con- 
tinue stirring until of right consistency for spreading over 
the cake; then flavor with vanilla, and pour quickly on 
cake. 

Nut Custard Cake. 

One-fourth cup of butter, one cup of sugar, two egg 
whites or one whole egg, one-half cup of milk, one and 
two-thirds cups of flour, two level teaspoonfuls of baking 
powder. Stir the butter in a cup until soft and pliable; 
then add sugar, a little at a time, and continue to stir 
until the whole becomes light and white; add one egg 
whole, and stir until thoroughly incorporated; then add 
a little milk, and thoroughly mix ; then a little flour, and 
incorporate that ; then add the other egg, and, when thor- 
oughly mixed with the dough, add a little milk, and so 
continue until all except one or two tablespoonfuls of flour 
have been used; mix the baking powder with this, and 
put it in last, and stir well. Have ready one cup of nut 
kernels cut in pieces (hickory nuts, pecan nuts, or Eng- 
lish walnuts), and stir half of them into the cake dough. 
Bake the cake in lavers in a moderately hot oven. When 



504 HOUSEHOLD SCIENCE. 

done and cooled a little, spread the following mixture be- 
tween layers : 

Custard Nut Filling for Cake. 

One egg white, one cup of sweet milk, two level table- 
spoonfuls of cornstarch, mixed with an equal amount of 
milk or cream. Put the milk to heat, and add to it six 
level tablespoonfuls of sugar. Heat to boiling point, and 
pour over the moistened starch, pouring slowly and stir- 
ring to prevent lumping. Return to the fire, and cook 
a few minutes after it reaches the boiling point; then 
pour it over the beaten egg white, carefully folding it 
in ; add the nuts, and spread between the layers of cake. 
Four level tablespoonfuls of flour instead of the two of 
corn starch may be used in making this filling, if desired. 

Yellow Cake. 

One-fourth cup of butter, three-fourths cup of sugar, 
one-fourth cup of milk, scant cup of flour, one and one-half 
teaspoonfuls of baking powder, one-half cup of egg yolks 
(five medium-sized eggs usually), one teaspoonful of ex- 
tract, lemon and vanilla in equal parts. Put the measured 
butter into a teacup, and stir with a fork until it is soft 
and pliable; then add a little sugar, and stir well; then 
a little more, and so continue until all is used and the 
mixture is light and white. Beat the egg yolks until light 
as possible ; then add them to the sugar and butter, and 
stir well ; add milk and flour alternately, thoroughly incor- 
porating each portion before adding another ; add the ex- 
tract, and beat that into the dough ; then add baking pow- 
der which has been thoroughly mixed with two table- 
spoonfuls of flour which have been saved out. Bake in 
a moderate oven. 

White Cake. 

One-third cup of butter, one cup of sugar, one-half cup 
of milk, one and three-fourths cups of flour, two teaspoon- 
fuls baking powder, one-half cup of egg whites (the whites 



APPENDIX. 505 

of about five eggs), one-half teaspoonful extract of al- 
mond. Cream the butter and sugar by stirring the but- 
ter until soft and pliable, using a teacup and a fork ; then 
add a little sugar, and stir it well into it; then add a lit- 
tle more, and so continue until all is used ; add a little milk, 
and stir until mixed ; then add a little flour, and stir it in, 
and so continue until all the milk is used, and all except two 
tablespoonfuls of the flour. Mix baking powder thorough- 
ly with remaining flour, and let all set while the cold egg 
whites are beaten very light; now stir the extract thor- 
oughly through the dough; then add flour with baking 
powder, and stir that into it; then carefully fold the egg 
whites into the dough, stirring barely enough to mix, 
so that no egg will lie in bunches, but no more. Much 
stirring may make the cake heavy. Bake forty-five min- 
utes in a moderate oven, if put into a brick-shaped bread 
tin. 

One-Egg Cake— To be Used Fresh. 

One cup of sugar, one level tablespoonful of butter, one- 
half cup of sweet milk, one cup of flour, one egg, two 
level teaspoonfuls of baking powder. Rub the butter 
with a small portion of the sugar ; then mix with the re- 
maining sugar ; add the milk and flour alternately, beating 
well, until half of each is used ; then add the egg without 
beating, and stir until it is thoroughly incorporated ; then 
add remainder of milk and flour. 

Six-Egg Cake. 

One-half cup of butter, one and one-half cups of sugar, 
one-half cup of milk, three-fourths cup of egg whites 
(about six medium-sized eggs make this amount), two 
and one-half cups of flour, two level teaspoonfuls of bak- 
ing powder, one-half teaspoonful of almond and lemon 
extract mixed equally. Stir the butter until soft and 
pliable before adding any sugar. Put butter into a teacup, 
and stir with a fork. When the butter is soft, add a little 
sugar, and stir well ; then add a little more, and so con- 
tinue until the mixture is light and white and one cup of 



506 HOUSEHOLD SCIENCE. 

sugar has been used. Mix remainder of sugar with flour. 
Add a little milk, and stir it well into butter; then add a 
little flour, and stir that well into it, and so continue until 
all the milk has been used and all the flour except two 
tablespoonfuls saved out for the baking powder. Mix 
baking powder well with the little flour, and set aside. 
Beat the egg whites until light. Stir the extract into the 
dough, then beat the baking powder into it, and lastly fold 
the beaten whites carefully into the mixture. Put into a 
brick-shaped bread tin, and bake forty-five minutes. The 
above cake may be made by using three whole eggs in- 
stead of six whites, and putting together as directed for 
"Cheap Fruit Cake." 

Cheap Fruit Cake. 

One-half cup of butter, two cups of sugar, four whole 
eggs, one cup of milk, three and one-half cups of flour, 
one and one-half teaspoonfuls baking powder, one-half 
teaspoonful of ground cinnamon, one-half teaspoonful 
ground mace or grated nutmeg, one cup of chopped figs, 
one-half cup of raisins seeded and chopped, one table- 
spoonful of molasses (mix with milk). Cream the but- 
ter with one cup of the sugar by first stirring the butter 
in a teacup until soft and pliable ; then add a little sugar, 
and when mixed add a little more, and so continue until 
the mixture is white and light. Mix remainder of sugar 
and the spices with the flour. Take out two tablespoon- 
fuls of plain flour, and mix baking powder with it. Roll 
the fruit in the flour, and put aside. Break an egg into the 
mixture, and stir until thoroughly incorporated; then add 
a little flour, and stir until well mixed. Continue this 
until flour, milk, and eggs are all used ; then stir the fruit 
into the dough ; and lastly, add the bit of flour with baking 
powder, and stir until thoroughly mixed. Bake in a loaf 
forty-five minutes. 



APPENDIX. 507 

Cheap Sponge Cake. 

Two eggs beaten light. Into this beat one cup of sugar, 
beating until the mixture is again light. Stir in one 
cup of flour, with which has been sifted two level tea- 
spoonfuls of baking powder and one-fourth of a tea- 
spoonful of salt. Add one-half teaspoonful of lemon ex- 
tract and one-half a cupful of boiling water. Stir as lit- 
tle as possible, and have the batter smooth. Turn imme- 
diately into a previously greased cake pan, and put at 
once into a moderately hot oven. Bake forty to forty-five 
minutes. ' If baked too rapidly, the cake will be tough, 
and not rise properly. 
Banana Cake. 

Two eggs beaten light, one cup of sugar beaten with 
the eggs until all is light, one cup of flour; sift with the 
flour two level teaspoonfuls of baking powder and one- 
fourth of a teaspoonful of salt ; one-third of a cup of 
sweet milk. Beat the flour and milk alternately into the 
egg and sugar mixture. Bake in three layers in an oven 
a very little hotter than for sponge cake. 
Filling for Banana Cake. 

Boil one cup of sugar and one-half a cup of water until 
it makes a very soft ball when dropped in cold water; 
then pour slowly over the beaten white of one egg, beat- 
ing constantly while pouring, and continue beating until 
cool enough to spread on the cake. Spread on the top 
of the bottom layer, and cover with sliced bananas ; put 
on the next layer, and treat it in the same way; put on 
the third layer, and cover the top in the same manner. 
This cake should be used fresh, as the fruit discolors if 
allowed to stand. 
Ice Cream — Chocolate Sauce. 

One pint of fresh milk, one cup of sugar, one egg, one 
tablespoon of flour (level), one-half teaspoonful of salt, 
one quart of thin cream, two tablespoonfuls of vanilla. Mix 
sugar and salt with the flour. Put one cup of milk to 



508 HOUSEHOLD SCIENCE. 

heat, and add the other to the flour and sugar mixture, 
and stir well. When the milk is hot, add sugar and milk 
mixture, and let boil a little. Have the egg beaten, and 
pour hot liquid over it, pouring slowly and stirring to 
prevent cooking egg in lumps. Make perfectly cold ; then 
add flavoring and cream, and freeze. Serve with the fol- 
lowing sauce : 

One and one-half tablespoonfuls of corn starch, two 
cups of sweet milk, two squares of grated chocolate, two 
eggs, one cup of sugar, one teaspoonful of extract of 
vanilla. Mix sugar and cornstarch together, and pour 
one cup of milk over it, and stir until mixed. Heat the 
other cup of milk, and when boiling hot pour it over the 
milk and sugar mixed, and return to the fire, and let boil 
a few minutes, stirring all the time. Remove from the 
fire, and pour it over the well-beaten eggs, pouring slowly 
and stirring constantly to prevent lumping. Return to 
fire, and cook same as a boiled custard until thick, but not 
curdled in the least. Pour this boiling hot over the choc- 
olate, which has set in a bowl over the hot teakettle while 
other work was done and is now melted. Stir chocolate 
well through, and, when sauce has cooled a little, add 
vanilla to it. Set where it will be very cold at serving 
time. 

TJnscalded Cornmeal Bread. 

One and one-half cups of cornmeal, one-half cup of 
flour, two teaspoonfuls baking powder (or a generous half 
teaspoonful of soda), one cup of milk (sweet for baking 
powder, sour for soda), one egg and two teaspoonfuls of 
sugar, one generous teaspoonful of salt. Beat the egg; 
add milk to it ; then put the meal all in except one- fourth 
of a cup. With this mix salt and sugar, and soda or 
baking powder. Bake three-quarters of an hour to an 
hour in a moderately hot oven, and make a good brown 
color. 



APPENDIX. 509 

Steamed Fruit Bread. 

Two cups of graham flour or whole wheat flour, one 
cup of milk (if sweet, use two generous teaspoonfuls of 
baking powder; if sour, use half a teaspoonful of soda). 
Measure out half a cup of English currants which have 
been previously cleaned and dried. Seed and chop half 
a cup of raisins. Take out half a cup of the flour, and 
mix soda or baking powder thoroughly with it. Mix all 
the chopped fruit well with the other flour. Put one 
level teaspoonful of salt into the milk in the mixing bowl, 
and stir the flour, with fruit in it, into this ; then add the 
flour containing soda or baking powder. Pour the mix- 
ture into a greased pudding mold, and steam three hours. 
Do not allow to be moved during the first hour that it 
cooks. Have the water boiling when the mold is put in, 
and do not allow to stop boiling during the time of cook- 
ing. 

Nut Loaf Cake. 

Put into a mixing bowl one cup of liquid, half milk and 
half water; add to this, half a cake of compressed yeast, 
mixed with two tablespoonfuls of cold water and half a 
teaspoonful of salt. Stir white flour into this until a bat- 
ter is formed, and beat well. Knead whole wheat flour 
into this until it ceases to adhere to hands or board. Put 
it into a greased bowl, grease over the top, and let rise 
three hours, keeping it at just lukewarm temperature, or, 
better, use a thermometer, and keep it at 75 ° F. until 
ready to bake. At the end of three hours it should be 
double its original bulk. Knead into it one tablespoonful 
of lard and one of butter and one of sugar. Knead until 
smooth (keeping it in the bowl), and add one cup of 
chopped English walnut or pecan meats. Make into loaf 
same as bread. Let rise until light, and bake. 
Left-Over Salad. 

One cup of plain boiled potatoes 1 cut in thin slices, one- 
half cup of salmon torn, in small pieces and freed from 



510 HOUSEHOLD SCIENCE. 

objectionable parts, one-half cup of hard-boiled eggs diced. 
Put potato, egg, and fish into a mixing bowl, and with two 
silver forks mix thoroughly together carefully, that they 
remain unbroken. Measure one cup of cooked salad dress- 
ing (page 284), and put it into one teaspoonful of mixed 
seasoning No. 3 (page 286). Stir until well mixed, and 
dress the salad with it. Let stand one hour in a cool 
place, that the flavors may blend; then serve on cold 
plates and on lettuce leaves. 

Eggs in Rice Nest. 

Fill an escallop shell with cold boiled rice, making 
it lie up light by lifting with a fork. Make a nest in the 
center with a spoon or knife. Into this drop an egg, be- 
ing careful not to break the yolk. Sprinkle with seasoned 
bread crumbs, and bake in a slow oven until the egg is 
cooked as desired. When removed from the oven, season 
with salt and pepper, and serve on the shell. 

Codfish Balls (from Left-Overs.) 

Put cold mashed potatoes into a bowl, and add one 
chopped hard-boiled egg to each cup, if you have it, other- 
wise the potatoes alone. Add to the potatoes a sufficient 
amount of left-over creamed codfish to moisten so that it 
can be formed into cakes. Make into cakes, and saute 
in bacon fat or good drippings. The balls may be made 
quite moist if dusted with fine bread crumbs. 

To Make Thickening of Milk and Flour. 

Measure the flour, add an equal amount of cold milk, 
and stir until smooth; then add more milk, until it is 
thin as griddle cake batter. Now add carefully a little 
of the liquid to be thickened, and when very thin, pour 
slowly into the boiling liquid, stirring rapidly, and pour- 
ing slowly. 

Plain Gaper Sauce. 

Use mutton soup stock and thicken with water and 
flour, — one tablespoonful of flour and one tablespoonfui 



APPENDIX. 511 

of water to one cup of liquid. Stir water and flour to- 
gether in a cup until smooth; then add to the boiling 
liquid, and stir while cooking. Put in capers last, a scant 
one-quarter of a cup to a cup of liquid. Serve with boiled 
mutton. 

Plain Parsley Sauce. 

Make same as above, except put in one generous table- 
spoonful of finely minced parslev instead of capers. Serve 
with boiled mutton. 

Plain Egg Sauce. 

Make the sauce as directed for caper sauce, using mut- 
ton broth for the liquid. Season with salt and pepper, 
and add one large or two very small hard-boiled eggs, 
chopped fine, in place of capers. Serve with boiled mut- 
ton. 

Plain Veal Pot Pie. 

Cut the veal in medium-sized pieces and simmer in a 
small quantity of water for an hour. Always choose fat 
veal. Pour off most of the water, but leave enough to 
cook the dumplings, then thicken with milk and flour and 
season the poured-off broth, lift the dumplings carefully, 
and pour over them the gravy. 

Stewed Chicken — With Dumplings. 

Prepare and cook same as veal pot pie. 

Escalloped Beef (Without Butter). 

Cut cold roast beef or steak into dice, and cook slowly 
in a very small amount of water until tender. Stir to- 
gether in a cup one-half tablespoonful of water and the 
same of flour, and add one-half cup of soup stock or water 
from the roasting pan, and two tablespoonfuls of strained 
tomato. Pour over the meat in the dish in which it is to 
be served enough to make quite moist, cover with but- 
tered crumbs, and bake in the oven until crumbs are 
brown. Made-over dishes generally need extra seasoning. 



512 HOUSEHOLD SCIENCE. 

Creamed Hamburg on Toast (Without Butter). 

One-half cup of milk, two teaspoonfuls flour, two tea- 
spoonfuls water, one- fourth cup (scant) chopped fresh 
meat. Stir water and flour together, and pour the cold 
milk over it. Cook four or five minutes, stirring- all the 
time, and add the meat. Let boil, season, and serve. 

To Cook Carrots (Plain). 

When carrots are to be cooked, have on the range, 
boiling in the kettle, such an amount of slightly salted 
water as in your opinion will allow the carrots to barely 
cook until tender without burning. The exact quantity 
of water cannot be given, as it evaporates more rapidly 
some days than others. Put the carrots in whole, or as 
nearly so as the kettle will permit. Keep them boiling 
steadily until tender. Remove the carrots from the ket- 
tle, and with a sharp knife divide each through the cen- 
ter. For each half pint of liquid in the kettle, measure 
out a level tablespoonful of flour, and add a little water 
to it. Stir these together in a cup until thoroughly mixed, 
then put into the boiling liquid, and stir until the flour is 
cooked, and the liquid smooth and thickened a little. 
Then season to taste with salt and pepper, and add a 
sufficient amount of vinegar to make it slightly acid. Re- 
turn carrots to the kettle, let boil and serve. 

White Sauce (Without Butter) for Carrots. 

Pour one cup of sweet milk into a saucepan, and let 
come to the boiling point. Put two level tablespoonfuls 
of flour into a bowl or teacup, and add a little less amount 
of water (cold). Stir until smooth, and add to the hot 
milk. Let boil a few minutes, and season with salt and 
pepper, add one heaping teaspoonful of parsley, stir up, 
pour over the carrots, and serve. 

Plain Sauces for Carrots. 

Sauce No. i : Put one cup of milk over the fire to heat. 
Measure two level tablespoonfuls of flour and one of 



APPENDIX. 513 

water. Stir until thoroughly mixed, pour the hot milk 
over the flour mixture and cook. Season with salt and 
pepper. 

Sauce No. 2 : If there is not liquid enough to make 
the sauce, put in enough rich milk to make the required 
amount, thicken as before, season, and serve. 

Sauce No. 3 : Put in enough beef broth to make the 
required amount of liquid, thicken in the same way as 
above, put one tablespoonful of vinegar to each cup of 
liquid, season, and serve. If the vinegar is very sharp, 
use less. 

White Sauce (Without Butter) for Cabbage. 

Put into a saucepan one cup of milk. Heat to the boil- 
ing point, and add two level tablespoonfuls of flour and 
a little less of water, mixed smoothly. Let cook until it 
thickens and ceases to taste of raw flour, season with salt 
and pepper, pour over the cabbage, and serve. 

Some find the cabbage more palatable by removing as 
much water as possible before pouring the sauce over it. 
Cabbage may be served with Hollandaise Sauce. 

Hollandaise Sauce (Without Butter). 

Pour one cup of White Sauce Without Butter, boiling 
hot, over a beaten egg, pouring slowly and beating rapid- 
ly ; add one tablespoonful of vinegar or lemon juice. Put 
over the fire, and heat until the egg cooks a little, but do 
not allow it to curdle. Season and serve. 

Hollaudaise Sauce (Without Butter) No. 2. 

Stir together, until well mixed, one tablespoonful each 
of water and flour ; add one cup of thin cream, and bring 
to the boiling point. While boiling, stir in the well-beaten 
yolks of three eggs, in which has been put one tablespoon- 
ful of vinegar or lemon juice ; add egg slowly, and con- 
tinue cooking after egg is in about one minute. Remove 
from fire, add the seasoning and the egg whites, beaten 
stiff. 

17 



514 HOUSEHOLD SCIENCE. 

To Cook Celery (Plain). 

Scrub with a vegetable brush to remove all dirt from the 
creases. Cut in half-inch lengths, and cook in a little boil- 
ing salted water. When tender, serve with White Sauce 
Without Butter, same as for carrots, except leave parsley 
out. 

To Cook Onions (Plain). 

Peel the onions and put to cook in a small quantity of 
water (boiling and salted) until tender, then serve with. 
White Sauce, same as for carrots. 

To Cook Tomatoes (Plain). 

Lay ripe tomatoes in a pan, stem side up, and cover 
with boiling water ; let stand an instant, drain off the hot 
water, and put cold water on them. Remove the skins, 
take out the cores, cut the tomatoes in pieces, and put to 
cook in a granite ware or porcelain kettle, and cook until 
well done. Season with salt, pepper, and butter, and add 
bread crumbs. 

Or make Sauce No. I, as for carrots, and mix 
with bread crusts cut in dice. Thicken the tomato by 
first putting a little of the tomato into the sauce, then 
pouring this into the kettle of tomatoes, stir well together, 
and serve. 

Plain White Beans in Cream. 

Look over the desired quantity of dry beans, wash, and 
put to soak in cold water to cover them. Let stand over 
night, or for several hours, until they have absorbed all 
the water they will take ; then put to cook, using the water 
in which they have soaked, and adding enough boiling 
water to cover. For each pint of beans used add half a 
tablespoonful of salt, and one level tablespoonful of sugar. 
Set the bean jar in the oven and cover. Let the beans 
cook until soft, but not dark. When done, make a white 
sauce by using one tablespoonful of water and one of flour 
to each cup of milk (as directed for making white sauce 



APPENDIX. 515 

for cabbage). When the sauce is smooth, season to taste, 
and pour over the beans. 

Plain Salsify or Vegetable Oysters. 

Wash the roots clean, and remove rootlets. Scrape the 
thin skin off, and keep in vinegar water, as they discolor 
very readily. Cut into bits, and cook one and one-half 
hours in boiling salted water. Keep just enough water 
to prevent burning. Season same as peas. Salt, pepper, 
and cream give best results, but it is good served with 
White Sauce Without Butter, for cabbage. 

Creamed Potatoes No. 1 ("Without Butter). 

Cut cold boiled potatoes in thin slices. Put into the 
spider, and pour enough whole milk into a bowl to cover 
the potatoes. Season the milk with salt and pepper, using 
each to taste a little, but remember that they will taste 
more after milk evaporates, and do not use too much. 
Pour the seasoned milk over the potatoes, place spider 
where the milk will be hot enough to evaporate without 
the necessity of stirring to prevent burning, because stir- 
ring mushes potatoes. Set an asbestos mat under spider 
when milk is hot, and allow to cook until the milk which 
remains has the consistency of cream. Serve at the same 
meal with boiled eggs. 

Creamed Potatoes No. 2 (Without Butter). 

Cut cold boiled potatoes in thin slices. Put One cup of 
sweet milk in a saucepan, and set on range. Stir together 
in a teacup two tablespoonfuls (level) of flour and a lit- 
tle less of water, and when milk boils pour this mixture 
slowly into it, stirring constantly to prevent lumping. 
Season to taste with salt and pepper, and, after it has 
cooked a little, pour over the potatoes in spider. Let 
boil, and serve. 



516 HOUSEHOLD SCIENCE. 

Creamed Turnips (Without Butter). 

Pare tender fine-flavored turnips, cut in dice. Wash 
and steam, or boil in little water. When tender and the 
water practically all evaporated (if boiled), make a sauce 
in the following manner: Put one cup of milk in a 
saucepan over the fire. Stir together in a cup one table- 
spoonful of flour and a little less of cold water, and when 
the milk boils stir this into it, pouring slowly and stirring 
constantly. Continue to stir until it has boiled a few min- 
utes, remove from fire, season, and pour over the turnips ; 
let boil, and serve. , 

To Cook Peas Dry. 

Shell and wash fresh green peas. Put to cook in plenty 
of water. Cook until tender, then allow the remaining 
water to evaporate. When all has evaporated except three 
or four tablespoonfuls, season the peas with salt, pepper, 
and butter ; cover, and allow them to cook five or ten min- 
utes, lifting the saucepan occasionally, and shaking, to 
better mix the seasoning with the peas. 

Plain Macedoine Meat Sauce. 

Sauce for reheating dark meats : Sweet corn, strained 
tomatoes, and clear soup in equal quantities form a basis 
for a brown sauce for reheating dark meats. Strain sauce 
before using, then cut into it hard-boiled eggs, as liked. 
Thicken the sauce as for creamed potatoes without butter. 

Plain Tomato Sauce. 

One cup of strained tomato, one tablespoonful water, 
one tablespoonful flour. Stir the water and flour togeth- 
er, pour in the cold tomatoes, and cook four or five min- 
utes. 

Non-Butter Sauce for Escalloped Dishes. 

One cup of whole milk, one tablespoonful of flour, and 
one of water. Make sauce of these, and Season to taste 
with salt and pepper. 



APPENDIX. 517 

Diced Chicken in Bisque Sauce. 

One-fourth cup of chicken or veal cut in small dice, 
one-eighth cup of cooked egg (left over in whatever man- 
ner cooked), cut equally fine, one-eighth of a cup of 
cooked rice. Pour over it enough "Non-Butter Sauce for 
Escalloped Dishes" to cover it, let boil, and serve on toast. 

Brown Sauce. 

One pint of chicken or veal broth, one tablespoonful of 
butter, and two of flour. Melt the butter, add the flour, 
and stir until a good brown, but do not allow it to burn. 
Put four level tablespoonfuls of flour into a teacup, and 
add broth or water enough to make a thin batter. Mix 
the browned flour with this, and add to the boiling liquid. 
Rinse the saucepan, and add this liquid also. Stir until 
the flour is cooked and the liquid thickened. Season with 
salt and pepper, and add very little onion, if desired. 

Cold Lemonade. 

Grate the yellow rind off one-half of a lemon, and 
pour a generous cup of boiling water over it. Let it stand 
while you squeeze the lemon, then add lemon juice and 
one-third cup of sugar, and set where it will become very 
cold before serving. 

Cold Orangeade. 

To the juice of one sweet orange add half a teaspoonful 
of lemon juice, one and one-fourth tablespoonfuls of 
sugar, and two-thirds of a cup of water. Stir until sugar 
dissolves, strain, and make very cold before serving. 

Cranberryade. 

Cook half a cup of cranberries in a generous cup of 
water until the skins break, mash the fruit, and strain 
through scalded cheesecloth. Do not squeeze, but simply 
allow to run through; add one teaspoonful of lemon juice 
and three and one-half tablespoonfuls of sugar. Make 
very cold, and serve. 



518 HOUSEHOLD SCIENCE. 

Raspberryade. 

Half a cup of raspberry juice, one teaspoonful of lemon 
juice, half a cup of water, a generous half tablespoonful 
of sugar. Stir until sugar melts, and set away to cool. 

Jelly-Flavored Ice Water. 

Into three-fourths of a cup of water made very cold 
(but never put ice into it) stir one teaspoonful of green 
grape, currant, barberry, or crabapple jelly. First mix 
the jelly with a little hot water, that it may not float about 
in lumps; add a very little lemon juice, if desired, and 
serve cold. 

Pineapple Soup. 

A generous half cup of shredded pineapple, one-third 
of a cup of orange juice, one and a half teaspoonfuls of 
lemon juice, a generous half tablespoonful of sugar (less 
if canned pineapple is used), one teaspoonful of arrow- 
root. Strain the fruit pulp through cheesecloth, and 
squeeze juice out. Moisten the arrowroot with cold wa- 
ter; add arrowroot and sugar to fruit juices; bring to 
boiling joint, and let simmer a few minutes; add half as 
much hot water as there is of the liquid ; cool, and serve. 

Raspberry and Currant Soup. 

Scant half cup of raspberry juice, scant fourth cup of 
currant juice, scant half cup of water, one and one-half 
teaspoonfuls of lemon juice, scant half tablespoonful of 
arrowroot. Moisten arrowroot with cold water, add to 
other ingredients, boil a few minutes, sweeten, and cool. 

Junket Whey. 

One junket tablet, one pint of whole milk (fresh). If 
the milk has cooled, warm to about the heat of new milk. 
Dissolve the tablet, and put it into the milk, and stir until 
mixed. Keep the milk luke warm until it separates well. 
Cut the curd with a knife, and strain the mixture through 
a cheesecloth bag. May use a teaspoonful of liquid ren- 
net instead of the tablet for forming the curd. After 



APPENDIX. 519 

straining, make the liquid cold, and serve as it is, or 
add. lemon juice to taste. May use less rennet, and keep 
warm longer in curding. 

Pineapple Frappe. 

One pineapple pared and shredded, the juice of three 
lemons, one and one-half pints of sugar, one and one-half 
pints of water. Make a syrup of sugar and water, and 
mix well with other ingredients; then add about three 
times as much cold water as there is of the mixture. 
Freeze very little, and serve; or simply make very cold, 
and use as a beverage. 

Gooseberry Jelly. 

Wash green gooseberries, and put to cook in a little 
water (just enough to show through the berries). Cook 
ten or fifteen minutes, or until they are soft and burst 
open ; then turn into a jelly bag, and allow to drain. Meas- 
ure the juice, and return to the fire. Cook eight minutes 
after it begins to boil. Add as much sugar as there was 
juice. When it again reaches the boiling point, cook two 
minutes, and turn into glasses. 

Black Raspberry and Currant Jelly. 

Look over equal parts of currants and black raspberries, 
leaving currants on the stems, and washing both. Mash 
the two together, and cook just enough to make juices 
run freely. Pour into a pointed strainer, and let drain. 
Measure the juice, and put to cook. Measure an equal 
amount of sugar, and when juice has cooked ten minutes 
add the sugar. Let boil up well, so that sugar is all melt- 
ed, and pour into glasses. Let stand twenty-four hours ; 
then put papers over the tops of glasses, or pour hot par- 
affine over jelly. 

Hygienic Dessert. 

Heat in a double boiler one quart of whole sweet milk. 
When boiling hot, add one teaspoonful of salt and one- 



520 HOUSEHOLD SCIENCE. 

third of a cup of cream of wheat. Let cook one-half 
hour, stirring occasionally the first fifteen minutes. When 
the cereal has cooked one-half hour, pour it over one 
whole egg beaten until light and sweetened with two 
tablespoonfuls of sugar. Stir only enough to thorough- 
ly mix the ingredients. Serve either hot or cold, with 
cream or with fresh fruit. 

Bills of Fare for Farmers. 

There are several reasons why it is well to make out 
each morning a bill of fare for the day, even if no more 
time is spent than simply to think it out. Because the 
family often consists of aged people, laborers and children 
and it is necessary that each find on the table the kind, 
quality and amoujit of food suited to the needs of the 
body and to the palate of the one partaking of a meal. 
One can thus be more certain of securing needed va- 
riety from day to day. It is also easier to use the left 
overs wisely and economically. Bills of fare should be 
simple — that is, there should be few courses in a meal. 
No one needs many courses in a meal and farmers usually 
have the good sense to abstain from such customs. There 
are a few rules which should always be kept in mind, if 
one would have the best results. No two articles similar 
in flavor and general properties should appear in the same 
meal, except, of course, some may be similar to those al- 
ways on the table, such as bread, butter, sugar, etc. 
Neither is there any good reason why tomatoes raw and 
cooked should not appear at the same meal if some like 
them one way and not the other. There is no good 
reason why a vegetable whose season is short at best, 
as asparagus, green peas, etc., should not appear on 
the table on consecutive days. They can be dressed in 
different ways and thus afford variety, and if the family 
exercise due self control in the amount eaten, there will be 
no danger of their tiring of it during the short time it 
is to be had fresh. 



APPENDIX. 521 

The following few bills of fare will serve to illustrate 
the author's idea : 

BREAKFAST. 

Strawberries. Rolled Wheat Mush. 

Sugar. Cream. 

Bread. Butter. 

Meat. Potatoes. Rolls. 

Coffee. Milk. 

BREAKFAST. 

Grapes. Boiled Rice. 

Bread and Butter. Cream and Sugar. 

Poached Eggs. Hashed Potatoes. 

Dry Toast. Coffee. Milk. 

BREAKFAST. 

Fruit Sauce. 

Cornmeal Mush. Sugar and Cream. 

Bread. Butter. 

Plain Boiled Potatoes. 

Codfish in White Sauce. 

Milk. Coffee. 

BREAKFAST. 

Apples. 

Oatmeal Mush. Sugar and Cream. 

Broiled Bacon. Creamed Potatoes. 

Bread. Butter. 

Milk. Coffee. 

Fruit, or fruit sauce, is placed first on the breakfast 
bill of fare because fruit taken at the beginning of the 
morning meal is found by some to be both pleasing and 
beneficial. Strawberries, blackberries, peaches and ba- 
nanas are each very palatable (in their raw state) with 
wheat mush. Eating fruit rather than cream with mush 
gives to some a pleasing variety. Cornmeal mush and 
oatmeal mush make a better food with milk than with 
cream and sugar, but on account of greater palatability 
it is sometimes better to take the cream or fruit, as the 



522 HOUSEHOLD SCIENCE. 

mush will not be eaten if served with milk, and cereals 
are a valuable addition to the morning meal. It is not 
necessary in the manufacture of cereals that any of the 
edible portion of the grain be excluded from the finished 
product. Cereals therefore contain all the mineral matter 
and muscle-forming material of the grains from which 
they are made. They also give some bulk to the food, 
and this is needed by old and young alike. Good bread is 
truly the staff of life, and while other foods can furnish 
fat in sufficient amount, no other fat equals butter in flavor 
for the purpose for which it is used. Lean meat, eggs 
and fish give muscle-forming material and mineral matter, 
both of which are needed to give children good teeth and 
bones and strong muscles, as well as for repair in older 
bodies. Potatoes furnish materials for heat and energy 
and also help give the needed bulk in food. Milk fur- 
nishes bulk, mineral matter, etc., and pleases the palate 
and cheapens the expense of living anywhere. Coffee 
pleases the palate, but increases the expense and often 
injures the health. For these reasons children should be 
brought up in such a way as to have no desire for it if 
possible. 

There is no good reason for many courses in a dinner. 
Four is enough to give all the food a person needs at the 
time, and since there is but one good reason for eating, 
viz., to supply the needs of the body, this answers the 
conditions. The following menus will serve to illustrate 
the manner in which a variety can be given from day. to 
day in summer, autumn or winter. Soup is used prima- 
rily to aid in giving the system the needed bulk ; seconda- 
rily, to quiet the nerves and allay the feeling of extreme 
haste which often causes farmers to eat too hurriedly to 
masticate their food properly, if solid food is taken at the 
beginning of the meal. Raw vegetables are used for the 
sake of the vegetable acids and mineral matter they fur- 
nish, and also for bulk, variety and palatability. Both 
raw vegetables and raw fruits help to tone the system 



APPENDIX. 523 

and are cheaper and more palatable than medicine. 
Cooked vegetables are used largely for bulk and variety, 
though they of course all give some food value and in 
case of legumes a goodly amount of it. Desserts are used 
principally to gratify the palate, and are often eaten when 
no food is needed. For this reason melons, berries, raw 
fruit, etc., are better than pastry, etc., for dessert usually. 
When the busy housewife can find time to prepare no 
more than three courses she may leave off dessert with- 
out fear of injuring any one's health. 
DINNER. 
Potato Soup. 
Chow Chow. 
Baked Beans. Steamed Brown Bread. 
Mashed Potatoes. Stewed Tomatoes. 
Bread. Butter. 
Celery Salad. 

Apples. 
Milk. Water. 
DINNER. 

Cream of Tomato Soup. 

Pickles. 

Roast Pork with Apple Sauce. 

Browned Potatoes. 

Mashed Turnips. Stewed Dry Beans. 

Bread. Butter. 

Tea. Water. 

Grapes. 

DINNER. 

Bean Soup. 

Pickled Beets. 

Beef Stew. Baked Potatoes. 

Mashed Parsnips. Stewed Dried Corn. 

Bread. Butter. 

Cabbage Salad. 

Apple Pie. 
Milk. Cocoa. 



524 HOUSEHOLD SCIENCE. 

DINNER. 

Corned Beef. 

Boiled Cabbage. 

Dried Lima Beans (stewed or in cream). 

(Canned) Stewed Tomatoes. Mashed Potatoes. 

Bread. Butter. 

Beet Salad. 

Apples. 

Milk. Coffee. 

DINNER. 

Boiled Pickled Pork and Potatoes. 

Asparagus. 

Macaroni with Cheese. 

Pickled Beets. 

Pieplant Shortcake with Cream. 

Tea. Milk. 

DINNER. 

Vegetable Soup. 

Young Onions. 

Chicken Stew. Dumplings. 

New Beets. Mashed Potatoes. 

Bread. Butter. 

Lettuce. 

Gooseberry Pie. 

Milk. Water. 

DINNER. 

Tomato Soup (from canned tomatoes). 

Radishes. 

Ham and Eggs. 

Mashed Potatoes. Green Corn. 

String Beans. 

Bread. Butter. 

Strawberries and Cream. 

Milk. Water. 



APPENDIX. 525 



DINNER. 

Stewed Chicken. Baked Potatoes. 
New Peas. 
Sliced Cucumbers. 
Custard Pie. 
Coffee. Milk. 



DINNER. 

Potato Soup. 

Sliced Tomatoes. 

Baked Fish. Mashed Potatoes. 

Green Beans. 

Bread. Butter. 

Cucumbers and Onions (vinegar dressing). 

Green Tomato Pie. 

Milk. Water. 

For the sake of those who are interested in longer din- 
ners simple menus illustrating such will be given. 

FIVE-COURSE DINNER. 

Julienne Soup. 

Celery. Olives. 

Broiled Whitefish — Parsley Butter. 

Roast Lamb — Currant Jelly. 

Green Peas. Mashed Potatoes. 

Macaroni with Cheese. 

Lettuce Salad. 

Salted Wafers. 

Ice Cream. Cake. 

Coffee. 



526 HOUSEHOLD SCIENCE. 

SIX-COURSE DINNER. 
Raw Oysters — Lemon Points. 
Bouillon. 
Sliced Cucumbers. Olives. 

Baked Shad. 
Roast Turkey, 
Chestnut Dressing, Cranberry Sauce. 
Baked Sweet Potatoes. Mashed Potatoes. 
Boiled Rice. 
Tomato Salad. 
Cheese Wafers. 
Strawberry Jelly. Whipped Cream. 

Cake. Coffee. 

For a seven-course dinner game would be added to a 
six-course dinner. 



INDEX. 



*T'he star indicates illustrations. 
tThe dagger indicates recipes. 

Abuses of foods 415 

Acetous fermentation 84 

Action of yeast in dough 95 

tA delicate dessert 342 

Adulterations in wheat flour 83 

in coffee : 246 

in tea 255 

Aerated bread 89 

Albuminoids 410 

Albumen cooking 220-224 

Alcoholic fermentation 84 

Alcohol as a fuel 10 

Alkaloids of coffee 246 

of tea 246 

Alkaloid of cocoa 251 

Aluminum utensils 21 

tAlmond creams 476 

t macaroons 437 

t " wafers 435 

t Almonds to blanch 381 

t chocolate 474 

t salted 381 

Allspice 173 

Alum powders 90 

American cheese 236 

tAmber jelly (class rule) 340 

tAngel cake (class rule) 426 

t " cake (home rule) 425 

Animal foods 177 

Anthracite coal 3 

t Apricots and prunes to stew 152 

t frozen 380 

t Apricot water 330 



530 INDEX. 

Apples J 47 

t " and raisins dried to cook 152 

t " and currants dried, to cook 152 

t " and rhubarb 15° 

t " buttered 153 

t " to bake • 149 

t " to stew 149 

" object of sulphuring 308 

t Apple and quince preserves 165 

t " and rhubarb marmalade 161 

t " and red raspberry 159 

t " and grape jelly 159 

t " and high bush cranberry jelly 158 

t " and nut salad 297 

t " and cranberry jelly 157 

t " and cranberry jelly (class rule) 157 

t " and rhubarb jelly 158 

t " and quince jelly 158 

t " custard pie 360 

tApples dried, to cook I5 2 

t " frozen 380 

tApple jelly *55 

t " jelly 340 

t " marmalade 161 

t " pie 363 

t " pie, dried 361 

t " pudding 35° 

t " pudding, baked 3S 1 

t " pudding, dried 35 1 

t " snow 35 1 

t " sauce, baked 149 

t " sauce cider 149 

tApples, sweet, to preserve 164 

tApple salad No. 1 296 

t " salad No. 2 297 

t " toast 488 

t " tapioca pudding 347 

t " water 330 

Arrowroot 3 T 4 

t custard 335 

t " gruel 332 

tAspic jelly, stock for 267 

t Asparagus, salad 290 



INDEX. 531 

tAsparagus, to cook 52 

Atwater's analysis of cereals 70 

f Bacon, to broil 194 

Baking '. 33 

tBaked, apple sauce 149 

t " apple pudding 351 

t " apple dumplings 365 

Baking bread 103 

bread, temperature of over for 103 

tBaked beans 62 

t " beans, puree of 273 

t custard 344 

t custard (class work) 344 

*Baking dish 481 

tBaked, egg plant 60 

t eggs in potato nest 228 

t " eggs in tomato cups 228 

t " eggs 228 

Baking in different ovens 119 

Baking powders 90 

powders, phosphate 90 

powders, tartrate 90 

powders, alum 90 

powders, home-made 91 

powder and soda, how to use 112 

powder, rendering doughs light with 89 

powder griddle cakes 115 

t powder biscuit 1 19 

t " powder biscuit (class work) 119 

powder biscuit, heat of oven for ; . . . 122 

t " powder corn bread 134 

t " powder pastry 360 

t powder pie crust 358 

" vegetables 48 

tBalls, pop-corn 498 

t ' pop-corn, tinted 498 

tBanana cake 507 

t " filling for cake 438 

t " salad 298 

t salad (class rule) 298 

t " sherbert 27 2 

tBananas to saute 215 



532 INDEX. 

Barm, Parisian 88 

" virgin 88 

tBarley gruel 332 

tBasting for fowls (class work) 202 

t " for fowls (home rule) 202 

Bay leaves 174 

tBeans and corn, cream of 277 

t " baked 62 

t " string, to cook 55 

t " stewed 62 

t " white, in cream 61 

t " white, in cream, plain 514 

tBechamel, sauce 486 

f Beef, broth with tomatoes (home rule) 264 

t " broth with tomatoes (class rule) 264 

t " broth 333 

t " balls, horseradish sauce 215 

t " braised 198 

" comparative value of cuts of 180 

" chuck ribs of 178 

" cross ribs of 179 

t " corned 183 

t " corned, to cook 186 

t " steak, to broil 190 

t " steak, to pan broil 192 

t " custard 335 

t " escalloped 490 

t " essence 263 

t " escalloped with macaroni 490 

t " escalloped without butter 511 

" flank 179 

t " frikzled 490 

t " hash in tomato cups 487 

t " (hamburg steak) to broil 192 

t " juice 264 

" loin of 179 

names of cuts of 179 

" plate of 179 

* prime ribs and short loin 196 

t " powder 334 

Beef, rump „ 179 

* ribs and short loin 195 

" shank 179 



INDEX. 533 

*Beef, side of 179 

" seven best ribs of 178 

" shoulder of 179 

* " round 188 

* " short loin 191 

* " small end rib cut 197 

* " shoulder cut 198 

t " salad 292 

" steak, to carve 217 

to select 303 

t " to cook a pot roast of 189 

t " tea 333 

t " tea, emergency 263 

t " tea 263 

t toast 335 

t " to roast a piece of 196 

" uses of, cuts 178 

* " wedge bone, sirloin of 190 

tBeet, croquettes 483 

tBeets, to cook 54 

tBerries, pickled 171 

Beverages 245-255 

t " chilled 379 

Bills of fare 383 

of fare for farmers 520 

tBirds, wild 334 

tBiscuit, baking powder (class rule) 119 

t " baking powder (home rule) 119 

tBiscuits with sour milk 1 18 

tBisque, of lobster (home rule) 279 

t of lobster (class rule) 279 

Bituminous coal 4 

tBlackberry, and currant jelly 519 

tBlackberries, frozen 379 

tBlackberry sauce 151 

Blackberries, to prepare, for table 3JJ 

tBlack beans, puree of 273 

f " tea, to make 255 

tBlueberry corn muffins 133 

t griddle cakes 115 

Boiling 32 

t " meats 183 

" vegetables 48 



534 INDEX. 

tBoiled, custard (home rule) 344 

t " custard (class rule) 344 

f " eggs, soft (class rule) 226 

t " frosting, with eggs 439 

t " frosting without eggs 439 

t " tongue, tomato sauce 480 

tBonbons 476 

tBouillion 267 

* " cup 266 

Braising 196 

34 

tBraised beef 198 

Brazil coffee 246 

Bread and rolls, heat of oven for 122 

" aerated 89 

* " and pans 107 

" baking of 103 

t " corn, No. 1 134 

t " corn, No. 2 134 

Breadcrumb soup 278 

t soup (class rule) 278 

tBread, federal 109 

t " from coarse flours 105 

t " ginger (home rule) 434 

" making 93 

" making, things of importance in 96-98 

" making, losses of dry matter in 98 

" making, soluble carbohydrates production of 99-100 

" making, losses of carbon 99 

t " nut 134 

t " pudding 352 

t " rye 109 

t " steamed fruit 509 

t " salt rising 109 

*Breadsticks and pans 107 

Bread, stirred 102 

t " to saute 211 

f " unscalded corn meal 5°8 

t " whole wheat 109 

t " with potato yeast 108 

t " with liquid yeast 108 

t " with compressed yeast No. 1 108 

t " with compressed yeast No. 2 108 



INDEX. 535 

tBread, with home-made yeast 106 

Breakfast 450 

* " table laid for 450 

tBreast of chicken in cream 480 

Brewers' yeast 86-87 

Brie cheese 235 

Broiling, methods of 33 

189 

over coals 33 

tBroiled mackerel 194 

tBroth, beef 333 

t " chicken 333 

t " lamb 333 

tBroths, meat 260 

tBroth, noodle 265 

t " scotch (class rule) 271 

t " scotch (home rule) 271 

tBrown bread, steamed 135 

tBrown, betty 35° 

t " soup (class rule) 271 

t " sauce 517 

t sugar taffy (class rule) 470 

t " sugar taffy 470 

tButtered, apples 153 

tButter, crabapple 162 

t " cake (class rule) 423 

t cake (home rule) 423 

t " parsley 194 

t " scotch 471 

t " to clarify 208 

to select 306 

t " tomato (class rule) 161 

t " tomato 161 

tButtermilk, mulled 331 

tBuns no 

tBun cake 1 1 1 

Caffeine 246 

tCabbage, boiled 52 

t creamed 53 

family 44 

t hot slaw No. 1 52 

t " hot slaw No. 2 53 



536 



INDEX. 



Cabba 

t 
t 
t 
t 
t 

tCake 

t " 

t " 

t " 

t " 

t " 

t " 

t " 

t " 

t " 

t '• 

t " 

t " 

t " 

t " 

t " 

t " 

t •' 

t " 

t " 
tCake, 

t - 

t " 

t •' 

t " 

t " 

t " 

t " 



e, losses in cooking 53 

pickled 170 

salad 290 

salad cream dressing 291 

to cook 52 

to saute 208 

angel (class rule) 426 

angel (home rule) 425 

banana 507 

banana filling for, No. 2 507 

banana filling for, No. 1 438 

butter (home rule) : 423 

butter (class rule) 423 

cheap sponge 507 

cheap fruit 506 

cooked filling for 439 

coffee ginger (home rule) 434 

coffee ginger (class rule) 434 

chocolate, Mrs. Hays 431 

caramel 429 

caramel filling for 430 

cream ( home rule) 426 

cream (class rule) 426 

fruit filling for 438 

fig 432 

fruit, Mrs. Preston 432 

fruit, Mrs. Lugger 432 

roll, filling for 427 

ginger (class rule) 434 

gold 424 

hash 487 

marbled chocolate 431 

Maud's 430 

marshmallow 429 

marshmallow, filling for • 429 

making 421 

making, utensils used in 421 

making, utensils used in 421 

nut filling for 438 

nut loaf 508 

nut custard 503 

nut and popcorn 499 

one egg 505 



INDEX. 537 

tCake, orange filling for 438 

t " popcorn 499 

t " plain chocolate filling 502 

t " pound 432 

t plain 502 

t " raspberry sponge 502 

t " ribbon 430 

t " roll (class rule) 426 

t " roll (home rule) 426 

t " six egg 505 

t " spiced No. 1 431 

t " spiced No. 2 431 

t sunshine 427 

t " sponge, Mrs. Ewing 425 

t sponge, Mrs. Caldwell 424 

t silver 424 

t to make butter 422 

t " white 504 

t " white, Miss Pike 429 

f white, plain 428 

t " water sponge 425 

t " yellow 504 

t " yolk, with water 423 

Calf's head, to prepare 189 

tCamembert cheese 235 

tCandy, cream (class rule) 476 

t " cream 475 

t cream, Mrs. Clark 475 

t peanut 471 

t plain molasses 471 

t " tutti frutti 476 

t velvet, molasses 470 

f Candies, home-made 469 

t " uncooked 477 

tCandied, nuts 477 

t orange and lemon peel 166 

Cane sugar 412 

Canning 141 

* " 141 

fruits, rule for 142 

t fruits without cooking 144 

Canned fish 397 

Cannel coal 5 



538 INDEX. 

tCantaloupe, frozen 380 

f to prepare, for table 378 

Capers 175 

tCaper sauce 184 

Carbohydrates 411 

Care of foods 309-311 

" of dried fruits 311 

" of fresh meats 310 

" of milk 310 

" of spices 310 

" of tea 310 

of yeast 310 

" of cake 311 

" of cereals 311 

■ " of canned goods 309 

" of cheese 311 

" of codfish 310 

" of coffee 310 

" of compressed yeast 105 

Caraway 174 

t Caramel 231 

f " cake 429 

t " cream 355 

t " creams No. 1 473 

t " creams No. 2 474 

f " custard 344 

t " frosting 440 

t " ice cream 36S 

t " omelet (home rule) 231 

t " pudding with water 345 

t " pudding 345 

t " souffle (home rule) 343 

t " souffle (class rule) 343 

t " sauce 355 

tCarrots, to cook plain 512 

t " to cook 50 

t in white sauce 5° 

t " sauce for 51 

tCarrot, salad 289 

Carving 216 

*Carving knife and fork 216 

Caviar 220 

Cellar 25 



INDEX. 539 

Celery 174 

t " cream of 277 

t " and nut sandwich 139 

t " and nut salad 293 

t " salad 293 

t " sandwich 139 

t " to cook 54 

t " to cook plain 514 

tCereal, coffees 248 

* " grains 63 

t " tea 334 

Cereals, prepared from corn 7 l ~7 2 

to select 307 

Cellulose 67 

use of, in food 77 

Cerealine flakes, to cook 73 

Ceylon coffee 246 

Charcoal 6 

tCharlotte, milk (home rule) 343 

t " russe 341 

t " rhubarb 353 

tCheap, fruit cake 506 

t " sponge cake 507 

Cheese 234-237 

t " balls No. 1 243 

t " balls No. 2 244 

Brie 235 

" Camembert 235 

" Chedder 235 

" cookery 237-240 

" cottage ,. . 234 

t " crackers or toast 243 

" digestibility of 237 

" Double Gloucester 235 

English 235 

t " fondue 241 

" food value of 237 

" French 235 

" full cream cheddars 236 

" gruyere 235 

" Holland 235 

mushes 244 

" Neufchatel 235 



540 INDEX. 

tCheese, omelet 232 

" Parmesan 236 

" Port du Salut 235 

t " pudding 241 

Roquefort 235 

t " sandwich No. 1 135 

t " sandwich No. 2 139 

t souffle (class rule) 242 

t " souffle (home rule) 242 

" Stilton 235 

t straws 240 

t " straws No. 1 366 

t " straws No. 2 366 

" skim 236 

t " strata 241 

t " toast 242 

t timbales (class rule) 240 

t " timbales 240 

t with rice 243 

t with spaghetti 243 

t with macaroni 243 

" Young America 236 

f Chervil dressing 292 

f Cherry pie 362 

tCherries, to can 144 

f Cherry and currant jelly 158 

tCherries, to preserve 164 

tChestnuts, to roast 381 

tChicken, broth 333 

t broiled, to carve 219 

t consomme 266 

t " cream of No. 1 280 

t " cream of No. 2 280 

t " cream of No. 3 280 

f " cream of No. 4 280 

t " croquettes 485 

t etc., escalloped 495 

t " in bisque sauce 517 

f " pie (class rule) 496 

t " pie 495 

t " pressed 491 

f " salad 296 

t stew with dumplings 511 



INDEX. 541 

tChicken, terrapin 492 

t to broil 192 

t " to carve 219 

t to prepare and roast 201 

t to saute 211 

t " to oven broil 193 

tChili sauce 169 

tChilled beverages 379 

*Child's breakfast 497 

* " lunch basket 136 

Children's parties 496 

*China closet 15 

Chocolate 252 

t almonds 474 

t cake, Mrs. Hays' 431 

t caramels '. 473 

t cream 341 

t creams 474 

t frosting 503 

t frosting No. 1 439 

f frosting No. 2 440 

t ice cream No. 1 368 

t ice cream No. 2 368 

tChow chow 171 

tChowder, fish 278 

Cinnamon 173 

tCider, apple sauce 149 

" vinegar 167 

tCitron, preserved 166 

*City market 300 

Classification of foods 408 

Classes of diets 325 

" of fried food 204 

Classification of nutrients 409 

Classes of salads 284 

tClam fritters 365 

of salad dressings 281 

of soups 262 

of teas 254 

Clear soup or consomme 265 

Cleaning silver, glass, etc 30 

Cloves 173 

Coal, varieties of 3 



542 INDEX. 

Cocoa 249 

alkaloid of 251 

" composition of, Payen 251 

" flakes 251 

t " made from nibs 253 

" nibs 251 

* " pot and cups 250 

t " to make 253 

tCocoanut bar 473 

t macaroons 437 

tCodfish balls 491 

t " creamed, evaporated cream 491 

t " balls from left overs 510 

Coffee 245 

" alkaloids of 246 

" adulterations of 246 

" Brazil 246 

t " cake from bun dough in 

t " cereal 248 

" Ceylon 245 

t " cleared with egg No. 1 247 

t " cleared with egg No. 2 248 

t " cream 338 

t " crust 334 

t " drip 248 

t " ginger cake (home rule) 434 

f " ginger cake (class rule) 434 

" hygienic 24S 

t " jelly 338 

" Java 246 

" Mocha 246 

t " perfait 369 

* " plant, flower and bean pod 245 

* " pot "Old Time" 247 

" West India 245 

Coke 5 

tCold orangeade 517 

t " cream frosting 440 

t " lemonade 517 

t " meat scrapple, to saute 213 

t " slaw 291 

Coloring of sugar 413 

Combination of food materials 388* 891 



INDEX. 543 

f Combinations of fruit, for puddings 348 

Common forms of pastes 312 

Comparative food value of meats 400-404 

Composition of eggs 225 

Compounds of food 407 

tCompressed yeast bread, graham flour 109 

t yeast bread No. 1 107 

t yeast bread No. 2 108 

yeast 88-89 

yeast, care of 105 

Condiments 172 

spices and flavors 172-176 

Consomme 260 

t chicken 266 

or clear soup 265 

Contamination of milk 319 

Cooked dressing 281 

tCookies (class rule) 436 

Cooking eggs 220 

f Cooked filling for cakes 439 

Cooking, methods of 33-35 

object of 34 

tCookies, oatmeal 437 

Cooking of protein foods 237, 238 

tCooked salad dressing 285 

Cooking vegetables in water, reason for 259 

tCookies with soda 436 

t with baking powder 436 

Copper utensils. . ... 21 

tCorbena soup 277 

tCorn bread No. 1 134 

t 

t 

t 

t 

t 

t 

t 

t 

t 

t 

t 

t 



bread No. 2 134 

bread, steamed 133 

meal bread, unscalded 508 

cream of 276 

cream of, class rule 276 

muffins, blueberries 133 

muffins, class rule 132 

meal mush, to make y^ 

muffins with baking powder 132 

muffins with egg 132 

muffins with sour milk, class rule 133 

bread with sour milk and soda 135 



544 INDEX. 

tCorn bread with baking powder 134 

" fat of 125 

* " kernel 125 

" oysters 59 

protein of 125 

" as a food for man 126 

" as an entire food 129 

t " to can 144 

t " gems 133 

t gems, white meal 133 

" general classes of 123 

" germ of 125 

" gluten of 125 

" green 57 

" green (when in market) 127 

t green, to stew 57 

t " griddle cakes with egg 131 

t " griddle cakes with baking powder 131 

t " griddle cakes (class rule) 132 

t " griddle cakes with sour milk 132 

tCorned beef 183 

Corn, starch of 125 

Cornstarch 314 

t omelet 232 

t pudding (home rule) 345 

t pudding (class rule) 345 

Corn, to dry 46 

tCottage cheese 234 

t " " sandwich 138 

tCottage pudding 428 

t " pudding (class rule) 428 

tCrabapple and plum jelly 158 

t " butter 162 

t " jelly 156 

tCracker or toast gruel 331 

tCranberryade 5 J 7 

tCranberry and grape jelly 159 

t and apple jelly (class rule) 157 

t and apple jelly 157 

t water 331 

tCranberries, to stew 150 

t to stew (class rule) 150 

tCreams, almond 476 



INDEX. 545 

tCream cake (home rule) 426 

t " cake (class rule) 426 

t " candy (class rule) 476 

t " candy, Mrs. Clark 475 

t " candy 475 

Cream 317 

tCreams, caramel No 1 473 

t " caramel No 2 474 

t " chocolate 474 

t " orange 476 

t " peppermint 476 

t " wintergreen 475 

tCream, caramel 355 

t " chocolate 341 

t " coffee 338 

" dressing 281 

t " dressing No. 1 286 

t " dressing No. 2 286 

t " dressing No. 3 287 

t " filling for pie 360 

t " glace 369 

t grape 340 

t " ginger (home rule) 342 

f " ginger (class rule) 342 

t " mock 356 

t orange 339 

t " of celery 277 

t " of chicken No. 1 28b 

t " of chicken No. 2 280 

t " of chicken No. 3 280 

t " of chicken No. 4 280 

t " of corn 276 

t " of corn (class rule) 276 

t of corn and beans 277 

t of lima beans 277 

t of lobster (home rule) 279 

t of mixed vegetables 277 

t of tartar tea 331 

t of peas 275 

t " of potatoes 275 

t of salsify 276 

f of split peas 274 

t of tomatoes 280 



546 INDEX. 

tCream of tomatoes (class work) 28a 

t 
t 
t 
t 
t 
t 
t 



puffs No. 1 349 

puffs No. 2 350 

puffs, filling for (class rule) 350 

puffs, filling for (home rule) 350 

pie 360 

sauce 354 

sauce for mixed croquettes 485 

soups and purees 272 

t strawberry 337 

t " tapioca 347 

tCreamed cabbage 53 

"t " codfish, evaporated cream 491 

1" " dates 476 

1" " eggs 492 

1" " egg yolks 229 

1" " hamburg on toast 491 

t hamburg on toast, (without butter) 512 

t " lobster 482 

t " oysters 482 

t " potatoes without butter No. 1 515 

t " potatoes without butter No. 2 515 

t " turnips without butter 516 

tCucumber pickles 168 

t " salad 292 

"("Croquettes, chicken 485 

t " lobster 484 

t " beet • 483 

t meat and rice 486 

t " potato 486 

t rice 484 

t to saute 486 

tCroutons 261 

tCrust coffee 334 

t Currant and cherry jelly 158 

t " and elderberry sauce. \ 15° 

t " and huckleberry sauce 150 

t " and raspberry sauce 15° 

t " and raspberry jelly 157 

t " and strawberry jelly 158 

f " and red raspberry salad 296 

t " jelly 155 

t " shrub 331 



INDEX. 547 

tCurrant sherbert 373 

tCurrants, to clean 478 

tCurry powder 1/5 

tCurried eggs 227 

tCustard, arrow root 335 

t " baked 344 

t " baked, class rule 344 

t " beef 335 

t " basis for ice cream 369 

t '* boiled (home rule) 344 

t boiled (class rule) 344 

t " caramel 344 

t " nut filling for cake 504 

t " pie (class rule) 358 

f " pie (home rule) 358 

t " yolk 345 

t " yolk (class rule) 345 

tCuts from forequarters to carve 218 

tCutlets, lobster 484 

tDates. creamed 474 

t " stuffed 477 

tDesserts 336 

tDessert, a delicate 342 

t " • hygienic 519 

tDessicated or shredded string beans 61 

tDewberries, to can 143 

Dextrine of wheat 80 

tDeviled meats 493 

Diastase 78 

Dietaries 383 

Dietary studies 383-386 

Diet and foods 407 

" liquid 325 

Digestibility of foods 414 

of cheese 237 

of eggs 222 

of raw meat 191 

Dinners 523, 524 

*Dinner table laid for 457 

' ' menu for 457 

' ' five course 525 

six course 525 



548 INDEX. 

Dining room furniture 445 

" room, to clean 464 

Dishes, washing 28 

Double Gloucester cheese 235 

boiler 13 

tDoughnuts, using fat instead of cream 435 

t with soda 435 

t with soda (class rule) 435 

t with baking powder 435 

t " raised 435 

Doughs rendered light with eggs 9 1 

tDrawn butter sauce 200 

tDressing, cream No. 1 286 

t 
t 
t 
t 
t 
t 
t 
t 



cream No. 2 286 

cream No. 3 287 

chervil 292 

French 286 

for fowls 201 

mayonnaise or oil 285 

tarragon 292 

tomato 287 

tDried apples, to cook 152 

t " apples and currants 152 

t " apple pudding 351 

t " apple pie 361 

t " fish 396 

t " fruit butter 153 

" fruit, to select 308 

t " fruit, to cook 151 

f " apples and raisins 152 

" vegetables 61 

tDrip coffee 248 

tDropped or poached eggs 226 

Drying, corn 46 

string beans 46 

Dry beans, to select 307 

t " toast 489 

" yeast 88 

Duck, to carve 219 

tDumplings 187 

Duties of a waitress 455, 456 

Effect of heat on gluten in bread making 95 

" of germ on flour 77 _ 78 



INDEX. 549 

Effect of boiling water on albumen of meats 184 

" of extreme heat in egg cookery 222 

Egg and milk dishes 225 

t " baked in potato nest 228 

t " baked in tomato cup 228 

t " baked 228 

t " gruel 33i 

" cookery, effect of extreme heat in 222 

t " nog 329 

Eggs, cooking 220 

" composition of 225 

t " creamed 49 2 

t " curried 227 

" digestibility of 222 

t " dropped or poached 226 

" for storage 223 

" fresh 223 

t " hard boiled 226 

" hens' ." . 220 

t " in anchovy sauce 492 

t " in bulk 223 

t " in rice nest 510 

" nutritive value of 224 

" packing of 223 

t " poached in milk 227 

Egg, powders 224 

t " riced on toast 488 

t " sandwich No. 1 ." 139 

t " sandwich No. 2 139 

t " sandwich No. 3 139 

t " sandwich No. 4 140 

t " salad 293 

t " sauce 185 

tEggs, scrambled No. 1 227 

t " scrambled No. 2 227 

t " shirred 229 

tEgg toast 488 

Eggs, to select 306 

t " to saute , 213 

" weight of 224 

tEgg yolks, creamed 229 

tEgg plant, baked 60 



550 INDEX. 

tEgg plant, oysters 60 

t " " to cook 60 

tElderberry and currant sauce 150 

tEndive, or winter lettuce 44 

t " salad 293 

t English breakfast tea 255 

English cheese 235 

tEmergency, beef tea 263 

tEscalloped, beef .49° 

t beef with macaroni 490 

f " beef (without butter) 511 

t chicken, etc 495 

t macaroni with tomatoes 59 

t mutton 490 

t tomato 58 

tEssence, beef 263 

Evaporated cream 322 

Extractives 177 

Extracts, of meat 404 

Extra work for each day of week 462 

tFamily hash 487 

tFarina gruel 333 

Fats and oils as food 386 

" of grains 67 

Fat of meat 178 

of wheat 79 

" of corn 125 

sources of 386 

" temperature of for frying 203 

to clarify 203 

tFederal bread 109 

Fermentation 84 

acetous 84 

alcoholic 84 

influence of temperature on 85 

lactic 84 

putrefactive 84 

viscous 84 

f Fig, cake ' 432 

t " filling 432 

t " pudding (home rule) 248 

t " pudding (class rule) 349 



INDEX. 551 

tFilling, for banana cake. 507 

f " for cake, custard nut 504 

t " for cream puffs (class rule) 350 

f for cream puffs (home rule) 350 

t for caramel cake 430 

t " for cream pie 360 

f " for marshmallow cake 429 

t " for roll cream cake 427 

t " for raspberry sponge cake 502 

t " for short cake 353 

tFingers, lady 433 

Fire, making and managing 10-13 

managing a wood 11 

" managing a coal 12 

*Fish and boning knife 193 

t " cakes to saute 212 

canned 397 

t " chowder 278 

" dried 39<> 

tFish, hash 487 

" preserved small 398 

f " to bake with dressing 200 

t " to fry 205 

t " to fillet 207 

t " to oven broil 193 

t " to saute 212 

" to select 306 

t " turbot 200 

" use of 395 

tFlaky, pie crust (class rule) 35§ 

t pie crust (home rule) 358 

tFlaxseed, water (home rule) 330 

t " water (class rule) 330 

Flour, barm 87-88 

" effects of germ on 77 _ 78 

t " gruel 332 

" patent Si 

red dog 82 

strength of 93 

straight grade 81 

f Foamy sauce 354 

tFondue cheese 241 

tFondant No. 2 47° 



552 INDEX. 

tFondant, to make 469 

Foods, abuses of 415-420 

" classification 408 

" digestibility 414 

Food, and diet 407 

" classes of fried 204 

" compounds 407 

*■' material combination of 388-391 

<l preservation 146 

use of 409 

value 392 

" value of cheese 237 

" value of milk $16 

" value of milk and egg dishes 225 

" value of skim milk 316-322 

" value of wheat cereals 82 

" waste of 391 

*Fowl, in baking dish 201 

t " to fillet a 207 

t " to stew 186 

t " to fricasse 187 

tFrappe, pineapple 519 

tFreezing, ice cream 367 

French, cheese 235 

" dressing 281 

t " dressing 286 

t " pancakes 114 

Fresh eggs 223 

tFried potatoes 205 

Friday, work for 467 

tFritters, clam 365 

t " batter for 365 

t " fruit 365 

tFrosting, boiled, without eggs 439 

t 
t 
t 
t 
t 
t 
t 
t 
t 



boiled with egg 439 

caramel 440 

chocolate No. 1 439 

chocolate No. 2 440 

chocolate 503 

cold cream 440 

for cakes 439 

milk (class rule) 440 

milk 440 



INDEX. 553 

tFrosting, with fruit juice or water 440 

tFrozen apricots 380 

t " apples 380 

t " blackberries 379 

t canteloupe 380 

" dishes 366 

fig pudding 371 

t " fruits 379 

t " meats, to cook 214 

t " peaches 380 

t " pears 380 

t raspberries and currants 379 

t rice pudding 375 

t strawberries 379 

t " tomato salad 288 

vegetables 48 

f watermelon 380 

Fruits 375 

tFruit, butter dried 153 

t canning without sugar 144 

t cake — Mrs Lugger 432 

t cake — Mrs. Preston 432 

t combination for pudding 348 

t " balls 473 

t " filling for cake 438 

t " fritters 365 

tFruits, frozen 379 

tFruit, ice cream 370 

t juices and syrups 159 

t " omelet 231 

" preserves 162, 163 

t " salpicon 501 

" sauces 147 

t " syrups 159 

" to select 306 

t syrup for flavoring ice cream 370 

t to glace 441 

t " to saute 215 

t " vinegar 167 

Frying 33 

203 

" in deep fat 33-34 

* " kettle and basket 203 



554 INDEX. 

Frying things of importance in 204 

tFrizzled beef 490 

t Fudge 475 

Fuels 3 

Full cream cheddar cheese 236 

Functions of protein compounds 410 

of nutrients 409 

*Game carver 218 

Garnishes for food 298 

Gasoline 10 

* range 20 

stoves, how to use 120 

Gas stoves, how to use 120 

Gelatinoids 410 

Gelatine, dishes 336 

how to use 336 

tGems, corn 133 

t " hygienic 117 

Gem pans 23 

Germ of corn , 125 

General rules for salads 282 

rules for serving meals 450 

tGiblets with mushrooms 492 

Ginger 176 

t " bread (home rule) 434 

t " cake (class rule) 434 

t " cream (home rule) 342 

t cream (class rule) 342 

t " sherbet 374 

t " snaps 436 

tGinger snaps (class rule) 436 

tGlace cream 369 

Glassware, cleaning 30 

Glucose, use of 412 

Gluten, of corn 125 

of wheat 80 

composition of 93 

tGold cake 424 

tGooseberry jelly 519 

t pie 361 

tGoose, to carve 219 

f Gooseberries, to stew, No. 1 151 



INDEX. 



555 



'{"Gooseberries, to stew, No. 2. 151 

tGraham bread with compressed yeast 109 

t " griddle cakes (class rule) 115 

tGranite, strawberry 375 

ware utensils 20 

Graphite 3 

tGrape and apple jelly 159 

t " and cranberry jelly 159 

t " cream 34° 

t " jelly 156 

t " juice 159 

t marmalade 161 

t " pudding 341 

Grapes 148 

t " pickled 171 

f " spiced 170 

" to prepare for table 377 

Green corn 127 

t " peas, puree of (home rule) 275 

t " peas, puree of (class rule) 275 

t " tea, to make 255 

t " tomato pickles 169 

t " wild grape jelly 156 

tGriddle cakes, blueberry 115 

t " " corn (class rule) 132 

t " " corn with sour milk 132 

t " " graham (class rule) 115 

" serving 131 

t " stale bread 494 

t " " stale bread (class rule) 494 

f " " wheat 1 14 

t " " with baking powder 115 

t " " of corn meal with baking powder 131 

t " " with corn meal and egg 131 

t " " with sour milk 115 

t " with whole wheat or graham 115 

Griddles, iron 22 

Gruel, arrowroot 332 

t " barley 332 

t " cracker or toast 331 

t " egg 331 

t " farina 333 

t " flour 332 



556 INDEX. 

tGruel, Indian meal 333 

t " oatmeal 332 

t " rice 33i 

t " rice and tapioca 332 

Gruyere cheese 235 

tGum arabic icing 44 1 

tHaggis, Scotch 210 

tHam, sandwich No. 1 138 

t " sandwich No. 2 138 

t " to boil 186 

t " to saute 212 

t " to select 305 

tHamburg, creamed, on toast 512 

tHash, balls, to saute 212 

t 
t 
t 
t 
t 
t 
t 



cakes 487 

family 487 

fish 487 

omelet 232 

potato 486 

rice and sausage 486 

turkey and oyster 488 

tHashed brown potatoes 209 

tHard boiled eggs 226 

tHard sauce 354 

Heat, of oven for bread and rolls 122 

" of oven for baking-powder biscuit 122 

" of oven for soda biscuit 122 

Henry's composition of "Red Dog" flour 94 

Hen's eggs 220 

tHigh-bush cranberry and apple jelly 158 

Hints for busy housekeepers 499-500 

tHokey poky ice cream 370 

Home-made baking powder 91 

" " candies 469 

t " " vinegar 156 

t " " yeast 106 

t " " yeast bread 106 

Holland cheese 235 

tHollandaise sauce No. 1 S3 

t sauce No. 2 54 

t sauce without butter 513 

t sauce without butter No. 2 513 



INDEX. 557 

tHominy, coarse, to cook 72 

t " fine, to cook 73 

Horseradish 176 

t " sauce 495 

tHot lemonade, No. 1 330 

t " lemonade, No, 2 330 

t " potato salad 291 

Hotel range, how to use 120 

tHot water, pie crust 360 

* " " pot, "Old Time 247 

Housekeepers, hints for 449-500 

How to use gelatine 336 

tHubbard squash, to cook 56 

tHuckleberry and currant sauce 150 

t pie 362 

tHygienic, coffee 248 

t " dessert 519 

t " gems 117 

t " muffins 117 

tlce cream, brown bread 370 

t " " caramel 368 

t " " custard basis 369 

t " " chocolate No. 1 36S 

t" " chocolate No. 2 368 

t " " chocolate sauce 507 

t " " freezing 3 6y 

t " " fruit 370 

t " hoky poky 370 

t " " pistachio 371 

t" " plain 368 

t " " to mold 367 

t " " tutti f ruitti 370 

t " " with fruit syrup 370 

tlce water 371 

t " " jelly flavored 518 

tlcing, gum arabic 441 

t " white of egg 441 

Important points for the nurse 327-328 

tlndian meal gruel 332 

t " pudding 352 

Influence of temperature on fermentation 85 

*Interior of dining room 462 



558 INDEX. 

Invalid cookery 324-320 

*Invalid's tray 024 

tjam, rhubarb No. 1 jfij 

t " rhubarb No. 2 ^7 

Java coffee 246 

tjelly, amber (class rule) 340 

t apple I55 

t apple 341 

f apple and quince 158 

t blackberry and currants 519 

t " coffee 338 

t " crabapple 156 

t " cranberry and apple 157 

t cranberry and apple (class rule) 157 

t currant 155 

t currant and cherry 158 

t currant and strawberry 158 

t " currant and raspberry 157 

t flavored ice water 518 

t grape I5 6 

t " grape and apple 159 

t grape and cranberry 159 

t green wild grape ... 156 

t " gooseberry 519 

t " high bush cranberry 158 

t lemon (class rule) 339 

t lemon (home rule) 338 

* " making 141 

" making 154 

t " orange 339 

t orange (class rule) 330, 

* P each 337 

f " peaches in 338 

t " plum and crabapple 158 

t prunes in (class rule) 340 

t " quince 1157 

t " raspberries in 338 

t red raspberries and apple 159 

t rhubarb and apple 158 

t " seamoss 334 

t " strawberry 33Q 

t " strawberries in ^y 



INDEX. 559 

Jelly, to make clear 154 

Jenkin's analyses of cereals 75 

analyses of corn, etc 124 

tjoe's sponge cake 424 

Joint of meat to carve 217 

Jordan and Hall, composition of flour 94 

tjuice, beef 264 

t " grape 159 

tjulienne soup 265 

t Junket whey 518 

Kerosene 10 

stoves, how to use 120 

*Kernel of corn 125 

tKisses 437 

*Kitchen, plan of for farm 14 

range, how to use 120 

the 16 

utensils 19 

*Knives, kitchen 22 

tKoumis 329 

Lactic fermentation 84 

tLamb, breast of, with tomato sauce 186 

t " broth 333 

t " to make 264 

" chops of ...., 183 

chuck of 183 

crown of 183 

leg of 183 

neck of 183 

saddle of 182-183 

shoulder of 183 

t to cook a breast of 185 

t to roast a leg of 199 

to seiect 305 

uses of cuts of 182 

tLady fingers 433 

tLaggard's omelet (class rule) 233 

t omelet (home rule) 232 

tLarding meats, etc 206 

*Last cut of round steak 189 

tLeft over salad 509 

tLemon, and orange peel, candied 166 



560 INDEX. 

tLemon jelly (class rule) 339 

t " jelly (home rule) 338 

t " pie 362 

t " pie (class rule) 362 

t " punch 374 

t " sauce 354 

t " sherbet 373 

* " squeezer 23 

tLemonade, cold 517 

t hot No. 1 330 

t " hot No. 2 330 

Lemons, to prepare for table 377 

tLemon whey 333 

tLentil pudding 62 

tLentils, puree of 274 

Lettuce 43 

t " and cheese sandwich 138 

t " sandwich 137 

t " salad — chervil dressing 292 

t " salad — cooked dressing 293 

t " salad — French dressing 292 

t salad — tarragon dressing 292 

tLight omelet 363 

tLinen pie 277 

Liquid diet 325 

Liquid fuels 8 

" yeast bread 108 

f Liver, balls to saute 213 

t " to saute 212 

tLoaf cake from bread dough ill 

" sugar 412 

Lobster 398 

tLobster, bisque (home rule) 279 

t " bisque or cream of lobster (class rule) 279 

t " creamed 482 

t " cream of (home rule) 279 

f " croquettes or cutlets 484 

t " salad 295 

t " to cook a 479 

t " to open 479 

Losses of carbon in bread making 99 

" of dry matter in bread making 98 

" in cooking cabbage S3 



INDEX. 561 

Lunch baskets 136 

* " basket, child's 136 

" dishes 479 

Luncheon 453 

" simple family 454 

* " table laid for 354 

t sweet potatoes 481 

Macaroni 313 

t escalloped with tomatoes 59 

t " in tomato cups 481 

select 307 

t with cheese 243 

t " with escalloped beef 490 

tMacaroons, almond 437 

t cocoanut 437 

tMacedoine pudding 343 

t " punch 374 

t sauce with meat pie 483 

tMackerel, broiled 194 

tMade mustard 495 

Maize or Indian corn 123-135 

Making, cake 421 

jelly 154 

pastry 356 

Manufacture of tea 233 

Malt vinegar 167 

tMaple and nut bar 472 

t " and nut bar (class rule) 472 

t " cream 472 

sugar 412 

t " sugar sauce 353 

Marketing, care of foods 301-303 

tMarbled, chocolate cake 431 

tMarinating, meats for salad 285 

Marmalades 160 

tMarmalade, apple 162 



grape 161 

peach 160 

raspberry 161 

rhubarb 160 

rhubarb and apple 161 



tMarshmallows 475 



562 INDEX. 

TMarshmallow, cake 429 

tMaud's cake 430 

Mayonnaise dressing 282 

t or oil dressing 285 

Meats 177 

tMeat and rice croquettes 486 

t " boiling 183-184 

" broths 260 

Meats, cooked together in soup stock 259 

comparative food value of 400-404 

t " deviled 493 

tMeat, dressing, seasoning for 202 

" extract 404 

" fat of 17S 

" for food, value of 178 

tMeats, larding : 205 

Meat pie, macedoine sauce 483 

t " mince 365 

f " pie with potato crust 483 

t " pie, rice crust 483 

t " pie with tomato sauce 483 

t " sauce 494 

t " souffle .' 489 

t " souffle (class rule) 489 

Meats, stewing 183-184 

Meat, uses and abuses of 394-406 

" waste in trimming 195 

*Melons cut in different ways 378 

" cut in fancy shapes 378 

*Measures and weights 27 

Measuring 26 

Menu for dinner 457 

tMeringue for pie 361 

tMeringued rice 347 

Methods of rendering dough light 89-92 

Middlings 80 

Milk 315-322 

and egg dishes 225 

and egg dishes, food value of 225 

as a perfect food 315 

t " charlotte (class rule) 342 

t " charlotte (home rule) 343 

contamination of 319 



INDEX. 563 

tMilk frosting 440 

t frosting (class work) 440 

preserving 326 

t shake 329 

t sherbet 373 

some ways of using 325 

souring of 320 

" sugar 318 

t " toast 335 

tMince meat 365 

Mineral matter of wheat 80 

tMint sauce for roast of lamb 200 

Miscellaneous 478 

tMiss Pike's white cake 429 

tMixed, broths with tomato 270 

t " fruit salad No. 1 297 

t " fruit salad No. 2 297 

t " seasoning for salad No. 1 287 

t " seasoning for salad No. 2 287 

t " seasoning for salad No. 3 285 

" soups 267 

t soup (class rule) 270 

t " soup (home rule) 270 

t " tomato soup 270 

t vegetable, cream of 277 

t " vegetable puree No. 1 277 

t " vegetable puree No. 2 278 

t " vegetable soup (class rule) 272 

t " vegetable soup (home rule) 272 

Mocha coffee 246 

tMock cream 356 

t " bisque sauce 484 

t " pate de foie gras 493 

t " terrapin 480 

Monday, work for 462 

tMousse, strawberry 37° 

t Muffins, corn (class rule) 132 

t " corn, with egg 132 

t " corn, with baking powder 132 

t " corn, with blueberries 133 

t " corn, with sour milk (class rule) 133 

tMuffins. hygienic T *7 

t " hygienic i*7 



564 INDEX. 

tMuffins, rice 117 

t " wheat and graham, sour milk 116 

f " wheat and graham (class rule) 116 

t " wheat with baking powder 117 

t " whole wheat raised with egg 118 

f " whole wheat or graham with baking powder 116 

t " with white flour 118 

tMulled buttermilk 331 

tMullagatawny soup 266 

tMushes cheese 244 

tMush to saute 211 

f Mushroom and oyster patties 482 

t sauce 485 

t sauce, veal in 490 

t " with giblets 493 

Mustard 175 

t " for cold meats 495 

t " sandwich 138 

Mutton, breast of 182 

t " broth, to make 264 

t " chops, to cook 214 

t " escalloped 49° 

t " fat, to clarify 479 

flank of 182 

leg of 182 

loin of 181 

names of cuts 182 

Mutton, neck of 182 

" rack of 182 

what to serve with 199 

shoulder of 182 

* " side of 182 

t to boil a leg of 185 

t " to carve a saddle of 218 

t " to roast a leg of 199 

to select 305 

uses of cuts of 181 

Neufchatel cheese 235 

tNog, egg 329 

tNon butter sauce 516 

tNoodle, broth 265 

tNoodles, for soup 261 



INDEX. 56S 

tNoodle, soup 268 

tNun's puffs 349 

Nurses, important points for 327-328 

Nutrients, classification of 409 

elements of 407 

functions of 410 

Nutritive value of eggs 224 

Nuts 380 

t " candied 477 

t to glace 441 

tNut bread 134 

t custard cake 503 

t " filling for layer cake 438 

t " loaf cake 508 

tNut roll 472 

Nutmeg 173 

tOatmeal, coarse to make mush of 73 

f " cookies 437 

t fine, to make mush of 74 

t " gruel 382 

tOats rolled to make mush of 74 

Objects of serving soups 256 

" of sulphuring apples 308 

tOdds and ends soup (class rule) 272 

t " and ends soup (home rule) 272 

Offal 405 

Oils and fats as food 386 

tOil dressing 285 

tOkra soup (class rule) 269 

t " soup (home rule) 269 

tOmelet, caramel (home rule) 231 

t cheese 232 

t " cornstarch 232 

t " fruit 230 

t " bam 232 

t " laggard (class rule) 233 

t " laggards (home rule) 232 

t " light 229 

t " plain 230 

t tomato 231 

tOne Crusted apple pie 361 

t " egg cake 505 

tOnions, cooked with milk 55 



566 INDEX. 

tOnions, smothered 55 

t " stuffed 494 

t " to cook 55 

f " to cook, plain 5 X 4 

f " to saute 210 

tOnion, juice to procure 47& 

t " salad 289 

tOrange and grape salad 297 

t " and lemon peel candied 166 

t " cream 339 

t " creams 476 

t " filling for cake 43§ 

t " jelly 339 

t " jelly (class rule) 339 

t " pudding 341 

t " sherbet 373 

tOranges, to prepare for table 377 

tOrangeade, cold 5 : 7 

Oven, broiling 33 

Ovens, how to test for bread 121 

" how to test for butter cake 121 

" how to test for dough made light with egg 121 

" how to test for pastry 121 

" how to test heat of 121 

Oysters 297-298 

t " creamed 482 

t " panned 482 

f Oysters, scalloped 482 

t " to broil 194 

t " to fry 206 

tOyster and mushroom patties 482 

t " patties 482 

t " soup 278 

t " stew 279 

Packing eggs 223 

tPanama sherbet 373 

Pan broiling 33 

tPancakes, French 114 

tPandowdy 361 

tPantry 24 

t Panned oysters 482 

Paraffine T 54 



INDEX. 567 

tParfait coffee 369 

tParisian barm 88 

tParker house rolls no 

Parmesan cheese 236 

Parsley 175 

t " butter 194 

t " sauce 185 

tParsnips, to cook 54 

t to saute 209 

*Passing a dish when serving 452 

Pastes and starch preparations 312 

" common forms 312 

* used in soups 312 

tPaste, puff 358 

Pastry 356 

t " (class rule) 360 

t " for one pie crust 357 

t with baking powder 360 

Patent flour 81 

tPatties, oyster 482 

tPeach jelly ^y 

t " marmalade 160 

t " pie 361 

t " preserves 165 

t tapioca pudding 348 

tPeaches, frozen 380 

t " in jelly 338 

t pickled 170 

t " to can 144 

t " to can whole 144 

t " to preserve 164 

tPeanut candy 471 

t nouget 471 

tPeanuts, salted 381 

tPears, and prunellos, stewed 152 

t " frozen 380 

t " to can whole 144 

t to preserve 164 

tPeas, cream of 275 

t " to can 145 

t to cook 55 

t " to cook dry 516 

tPeat 7 



568 INDEX. 

tPepper 174 

tPeppermint creams 476 

tPickling 167 

tPickled berries 171 

t cabbage 170 

t " grapes 171 

f " peaches 170 

tPickles, cucumbers 168 

f " green tomato 169 

t " ripe cucumbers 169 

t " sweet cucumber 169 

t " tomato, sweet 169 

t " watermelon rind 168 

t Picnic sandwich 138 

tPie crust, baking powder 358 

t " " flaky (class rule) . 359 

t " " flaky (home rule) 358 

t " " with hot water 360 

tPie. apple 363 

t ' apple custard 360 

t ' cherry 362 

f ' chicken 495 

t " chicken (class rule) 496 

t " cream 360 

t " custard (class rule) 358 

t " custard (home rule ) 359 

t " dried apple 361 

t ' gooseberry 361 

t " huckleberry 362 

t " lemon 362 

t ' lemon (class rule) 362 

t " linen 363 

t " one crust apple 361 

t " peach 361 

t " potato No. 1 363 

t " potato No. 2 364 

t " rhubarb 363 

t " squash 364 

t ' squash (class rule) 364 

" to make 357 

tPieplant shortcake 353 

t " to can 142 

t " to steam 153 



INDEX. 569 

tPieplant, to stew 151 

tPilaf, Turkish 493 

tPineapple frappe 519 

t preserved 165 

t sherbet 372 

t sorbet 372 

t soup 5 X 9 

f to prepare for table 377 

tPistachio ice cream 37 l 

Phosphate baking powders 90 

*Placing a dish when serving 451 

tPlain cake 423 

t " cake — chocolate frosting : 502 

t " caper sauce 510 

t " egg sauce 5 11 

t " ice cream 368 

t " macedoine meat sauce 5*6 

t " meat sandwich 13S 

t " molasses candy 47 1 

t " omelet 230 

t " parsley sauce 5 11 

f " sauce for carrots 5 12 

t " tomato sauce 5 l & 

t " veal pot pie 5 11 

t " white beans in cream 5 : 4 

tPlum and crab apple jelly 158 

t Plums and prunes to stew IS 2 

t " preserved 166 

t " spiced 170 

t Polishing silver 468 

tPopcorn cake 499 

t " and nut cake 499 

t " balls 498 

t " balls, tinted 499 

tPopovers (class rule) 113 

t " (home rule) 113 

Porcelain utensils '. 20 

Port du Salut cheese 235 

Pork, back 181 

t " chops, to saute 213 

" ham 181 

" loin of 181 

" middle 181 



570 INDEX. 

Pork, names of cuts of 181 

* " side of 181 

" shoulder 181 

" spare ribs of i8r 

t to carve a loin of 218 

t " to roast 198 

t " to roast spare ribs of 198 

" to select 305 

" uses of cuts 181 

tPotatoes, baked 49 

t " brown hashed 488 

t " cream of 275 

t " creamed 50 

t " creamed without butter No. 1 515 

t creamed without butter No. 2 515 

t " emergency 49 

t " fried 205 

t " luncheon sweet 481 

t " mashed 49 

t " plain boiled 48 

t " puree of (class rule) 275 

t " puree of (home rule) 276 

t " riced 50 

t " sweet 481 

t " to saute sweet 209 

tPotato and beet salad 292 

t " balls to saute 209 

t " croquettes 486 

t " crust, meat pie 483 

t " hash 486 

t " pie No. 1 363 

t " pie No. 2 364 

t " puffs with cheese 240 

" ricer 21 

t " salad (class rule) 291 

t " salad (home rule) 291 

t " salad, hot 291 

t " straws 205 

t " yeast 106 

t " yeast bread 108 

tPot pie, veal 187 

tPound cake 432 

tPoultry, to select 305 



INDEX. 571 

tPowder, beef 334 

Prepared cereals 64-72 

Preservatives x 4° 

Preserves 162-103 

t " apple and quince J 6S 

t " peaches I0 5 

f " tomato J 65 

t " water melon rind 100 

Preserving milk 3 2 ° 

tPreserved citron I0 o 

f " pineapple I( 55 

t " plums l66 

small fish 393 

tPressed chicken 49 1 

tPrime ribs of beef and short loin of beef 196 

Production of soluble corbohydrates in bread making 99 

Proportion of flour and liquid in bread making 102 

Protein, compounds, functions of 4 10 

" foods, cooking of 237-238 

" of corn I2 5 

tPrunes and apricots, to stew J 5 2 

t " and plums, to stew : 5 2 

t " in jelly (class rule) 34° 

tPrunellos and pears stewed IS 2 

Ptomaines 39& 

tPudding, apple 35° 

t " apple tapioca 347 

t " baked apple 35* 

t " baked apple dumpling • 365 

t " bread 3S 2 

t caramel 345 

t " caramel with water 345 

t " cornstarch (class rule) 345 

t ' cornstarch (home rule) 345 

t cheese 2 4 I 

t " cottage (class rule) 428 

t " cottage (home rule) 4 2 § 

t " dried apple 35 1 

t " fig (class rule) 2 49 

t " fig (home rule) 34& 

t " frozen fig 37 1 

t " frozen rice 34 1 

t " grape 34 1 



572 INDEX. 

tPudding, Indian 352 

t macedoine 343 

t orange 341 

t peach tapioca 348 

t rennet 346 

t rice (class rule) 346 

t rice (home rule) 346 

t snow (gelatine) 340 

t snow (rice) 346 

t steamed fruit 352 

t strawberry 337 

t strawberry tapioca. 347 

t suet (class rule) 352 

t suet (home rule) 352 

t tapioca snow 347 

t Yorkshire 197 

Puddings and pudding sauces 341 

tPuffs, cream No. 1 349 

t " cream No. 2 350 

t " nun's 349 

tPuff, paste 358 

f Punch, lemon 374 

t macedoine 374 

t " W. C. T. U 374 

Purees and cream soups 272 

tPuree of baked beans 273 

t 
t 
t 
t 
t 
t 
t 
t 
t 
t 
t 



of black beans 273 

of green peas (home rule) 275 

of green peas (class rule) 275 

of lentils 274 

of mixed vegetables No. 1 277 

of mixed vegetables No. 2 278 

of potatoes (class rule) 275 

of potatoes (home rule) 276 

of salmon 279 

of split peas 274 

of tomatoes 274 

sieve 21 

Putrefactive fermentation 84 



tQuince and apple jelly 158 

t and apple preserves 165 

t jelly 157 



INDEX. 57 3 

tRaised doughnuts 435 

tRaisins, stuffed 477 

t " to stone 478 

tRange 17 

t " gasoline 20 

t " hotel 16 

t " hotel, how to use 120 

* " inner construction of 8, 9, 11 

t " kitchen 18 

t '.' kitchen, how to use .* 120 

tRabbit, to saute 211 

f Rarebit, welsh 241 

tRaspberry and currant jelly 157 

t and currant sauce 150 

t marmalade 161 

t sponge cake. 502 

tRaspberries and currants frozen 379 

t and currant soup 518 

t " in jelly 338 

t " to can 143 

tRaspberryade 518 

tRaw beef sandwich 334 

t " fruit as food 375 

tRefrigerator, cleaning 32 

tReasons for cooking vegetables in water 259 

t " for scalding cornmeal 130 

" for using cold water in making soup stock 259 

Red, dog flour 82 

t " raspberry and apply jelly 159 

Rennet 234 

t " pudding 346 

Rendering doughs light with baking powder 89 

Rhubarb 44 

t " and apples 150 

t " and apple jelly : 158 

t " and apple marmalade 161 

t " charlotte 353 

t " jam No. 1 167 

t " jam No. 2 167 

t " marmalade 160 

t pie 363 

tRibbon, cake 430 

*Ribs and short loin of beef 195 



574 INDEX. 

tRice and sausage hash 486 

t " and tapioca gruel 332 

t " croquettes 484 

t " croquettes, sauce for 485 

t " crust, meat pie 483 

t " gruel 331 

t " muffins 117 

t " nest, with egg 510 

f pudding (class rule) 346 

f " pudding (home rule) 346 

t " to cook 74 

t to cook in water 58 

t " to steam 57 

t " with cheese 243 

tRiced egg on toast 488 

tRipe cucumber pickles 169 

tRissoles 365 

tRolls and pans 107 

t " parker house no 

tRoll, pans 23 

t " cake (class rule) 426 

t " cake (home rule) 426 

Roasting 33 

Roasting 195 

tRoast beef salad 295 

t " lamb, mint sauce 200 

Roquefort cheese 235 

Rule, for canning fruits 142 

" for canning vegetables 142 

tRye bread , 109 

Saddle of lamb, to carve 218 

Sago 175 

Salads, general rules for 282 

tSalad, apple No. 1 296 

t " apple No. 2 297 

t " apple and nut 297 

t " asparagus 290 

t " banana 298 

t " banana (class rule) 298 

t " beet 292 

t " cabbage 290 

t " cabbage, cream dressing 291 



IN T DEX. 575 

tSalad, carrot 289 

t " celery 293 

t " celery and nut 293 

t " chicken 295 

Salads, classes of 284 

tSalad, cucumber 292 

t " currant and red raspberry 296 

dressings, classes of 181 

t " dressing, cooked 285 

t egg 293 

t " endive 293 

t dressing for lettuce sandwich 138 

t frozen tomato 288 

t " hot potato 291 

t " lettuce 292 

t " lettuce, chervil dressing 292 

t lettuce, cooked dressing 293 

t lettuce, french dressing 292 

t lobster 295 

" making 283 

t mixed fruit No. 1 297 

t " mixed fruit No. 2 297 

t " onion 289 

t orange and grape 297 

t " potato (class rule) 291 

t " potato (home rule) 291 

t potato and beet 292 

t roast beef 295 

t " salmon 295 

t salmon and celery (class rule) 294 

t salmon and celery (home rule) 294 

t salmon and tomato (class rule) 294 

t salmon and tomato (home rule) 295 

t " salmon, egg garnish 294 

t shrimp 295 

t " string beans 290 

t sweet bread 296 

t " tomato 287 

t tomato, celery and nut 289 

f tomato in tomato cups 288 

t " water cress 293 

t " winter tomato 288 

Salads, salad dressing and garnishes 281-284 



576 



INDEX. 



tSally Lunns 117 

tSalmon and celery salad (class rule) 294 

t " and celery salad (home rule) 294 

t " and tomato salad (class rule) 294 

t " and tomato salad (home rule) 295 

t " puree of 279 

t salad 295 

t " salad, egg garnish 294 

tSalpicon fruit 501 

tSalsify, cream of 276 

t " or vegetable oyster, to cook 59 

t " to cook plain 515 

t " to saute 208 

tSalt rising bread 109 

tSalted almonds 381 

t " peanuts 381 

tSalt, use of 147 

Sandwiches 137 

tSandwich, cheese No. 1 139 

t cheese No. 2 139 

t celery 139 

t celery and nut 139 

t cottage cheese 138 

t egg No. 1 139 

t egg No. 2 139 

t egg No. 3 139 

t egg No. 4 140 

t " ham No. 1 138 

t ham No. 2 138 

t lettuce 137 

t lettuce and cheese 138 

t lettuce, dressing for 138 

t mustard 138 

t picnic 138 

t plain meat 138 

t raw beef 334 

t sardine 140 

t water cress 137 

tSardine sandwich 140 

Saturday, work for 468 

tSauce, anchovy, egg in 492 

t " baked apple 149 

t " bechamel 486 



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INDEX. 577 

bisque, with chicken 5*7 

blackberry 15 l 

brown S l 7 

caper 184 

caramel 355 

chili i6g 

chocolate for ice cream 507 

cider apple 149 

cream 354 

currant and huckleberry 150 

currant and raspberry 130 

drawn butter 200 

egg 185 

elderberry and currant 150 

foamy 354 

for croquettes 484 

for escalloped dishes 495 

for light omelet 230 

for mixing croquettes 485 

for plain pudding 356 

for puddings 343. 356 

for rice pudding 355 

for serving rice croquettes. 485 

for snow pudding 340 

hollandaise No. 1 53 

hollandaise No. 2 54 

hollandaise, without butter 513 

hollandaise, without butter No. 2 515 

hard 354 

horseradish 495 

lemon 354 

maple sugar 353 

meat 494 

mint 200 

mock bisque 484 

mushroom 485 

non butter 5*6 

parsley 185 

plain caper 5 10 

plain egg 5 r i 

plain, for carrots 5 12 

plain macedoine meat 516 

plain parsley 5 11 



578 INDEX. 

tSauce, plain tomato 516 

t tomato (brown) 198 

t " tomato 495 

t vinegar 355 

t " white, without butter 512 

t " white, without butter, for cabbage 51,3 

tSauces for carrots 51 

Sauteing 208 

Stewing 33-34 

tSauted. tomatoes 58 

tSave all soup 270 

*Scales, household 29 

Scalding cornmeal, reasons for 130 

tScalloped, oysters 482 

tScrambled eggs No. -i 227 

t eggs No. 2 227 

tScrapple 210 

tScotch broth (class rule) 201 

t " broth (home rule) 271 

t " haggis 210 

tSea moss jelly 334 

tSeasoning, for meat dressing 202 

t . for salad, mixed No. 1 287 

t for salad, mixed No. 2 287 

t " for salad mixed No. 3 287 

Serving griddle cakes 131 

Setting tables and serving meals 449 

Shad roe 220 

tSheep's head, to prepare 189 

f Sherbet, banana 372 

t currant 373 

t ginger 374 

t lemon 373 

t " milk 373 

t orange 373 

t panama 373 

t pineapple 372 

tShirred eggs 229 

egg, shell for baking 229 

tShortcake, filling for 353 

t pieplant 353 

tShoulder cut of beef ; 198 

Shredded or dessicated strina: beans 61 



INDEX. 579 

tShrimp salad 295 

tShrub, currant 331 

tSilver, cake 424 

cleaning 30 

polishing 468 

Simple family luncheon 454 

Sink, cleaning 31 

tSirloin roast, to carve 217 

tSix egg cake 505 

Skim cheese 236 

" milk, food value of 316-322 

tSlaw, cold 291 

Slosson's composition of cereal foods 75 

*Small end, rib cut of beef 197 

t " fish preserved 398 

tSnaps, ginger 436 

t " ginger, class rule 436 

tSnow, pudding, gelatine 340 

t pudding, rice 346 

t pudding, sauce for 341 

Soapstone griddle 22 

Soda and baking powder, how to use 112 

t " biscuit (class rule) 118 

t " biscuit, heat of oven for 122 

tSoft boiled eggs (class rule) 226 

" fruits 163 

Solid fruits 163 

Some ways of using milk 325 

tSorbet, pineapple ^2 

*Sorghum plant 413 

f Souffle, caramel (class rule) 343 

t cheese (class rule) 242 

t cheese (home rule) 242 

t meat 489 

f meat (class rule) 489 

Soups and soup making 256 

classes of 277 

" thickening for 262 

what to serve in 260 

tSoup, bread crumb 278 

t bread (class rule) 278 

t brown (class rule) 271 

t corbena 277 



580 INDEX. 

Soup digester '. 22 

t " julienne 265 

t " mixed (class rule) 270 

t " mixed (home rule) 270 

t " mixed tomato 270 

t " mixed vegetable (class rule) 272 

t " mixed vegetable (home rule) 272 

t " mullagatawny 266 

t " noodle 268 

t " noodles for 261 

" object of serving 256 

t " odds and ends (class rule) 272 

t " odds and ends (home rule) 272 

t " okra (home rule) 269 

t " oyster 278 

t " pineapple 5*8 

t " raspberry and currant 518 

t " saveall 270 

Soup stock, meats cooked together for 259 

" " reasons for using cold water in making 259 

t " " to color 258 

" " to remove fat from 264 

" to make 257 

" " vegetables used for flavoring 260 

*Soup tureen, ladle and coups 256 

Soups, vegetable 268 

Sources of fat 386 

tSour milk and soda corn bread 135 

t " milk biscuit 118 

t " milk griddle cakes 115 

Souring of milk 320 

tSpaghetti in tomato cups 481 

t " with cheese 243 

Spearmint 175 

Spices 172 

tSpiced cake No 1 43 1 

t " cake No. 2 431 

t " grapes 17° 

t " plums 170 

t " tomatoes 169 

Spider, cast iron 23 

tSplit peas, cream of 274 

t " peas, puree of 274 



INDEX. 581 

Spinach 45 

to cook 56 

tSponge cake, Mrs. Caldwell 424 

t " cake, Mrs. Ewing 425 

t " cake, Joe's 424 

t " cake, raspberry 502 

tSquabs, to broil 193 

tSquash, hubbard, to cook 56 

t " pie 364 

t " pie (class rule) 364 

t " summer 57 

t " to saute summer 209 

tSquirrels, to carve 219 

f Stale bread griddle cakes 494 

t " bread griddle cakes (class rule) 494 

Starch, of corn ' 125 

of wheat 20 

Steaming 33 

vegetables 48 

tSteamed brown bread 135 

t corn bread 133 

t " fruit bread 509 

t " fruit pudding 352 

Stewing 33, 34 

meats 183 

tStew, oyster 279 

tStewed beans 62 

t " chicken, with dumplings 511 

t " prunellos and prunes 152 

Stilton cheese 235 

Stirred bread 102 

Stock 257 

t " for aspic j elly 267 

Store room 25 

Stoves 89 

" gas, how to use 120 

gasoline, how to use 120 

kerosene, how to use 112 

Straight grade flour 81 

*Strainer 21 

tStrata cheese 241 

tStrawberry and currant jelly. 158 

t cream 337 



582 INDEX. 

tStrawberry, granite 375" 

t " jelly 337 

t " mousse 37° 

t " pudding 337 

t " tapioca pudding 347 

tStrawberries, frozen 379 

t " in jelly 337 

t to prepare for table 377 

t to preserve 164 

tStraws, cheese 2 4° 

t " cheese No. 2 366 

t " cheese No. 1 366 

t " potato 405 

Strength of yeast 86 

String bean salad 290 

" beans drying 46 

t " beans, to can 145 

Study of dietaries 383 

tStuffed dates 477 

t " onions 494 

t raisins 477 

t " tomatoes 5§ 

tSuckling pig, to carve 219 

tSuet pudding (class rule) 352 

t " pudding (home rule) 35 2 

Sugar, cane 4 12 

* " cane and sugar beet 411 

" coloring of 413 

loaf 412 

maple 4 12 

of milk 318 

t " taffy 470 

" use of 147 

Summer savory 174 

t " squash, to taste 209 

tSunshine cake 4 2 7 

f " cake (class rule) 428 

tSweet apples, to preserve 164 

cucumber pickles 169 

marjorun 175 

t " potatoes, baked 48 

t " potatoes, browned 49 

t " potatoes, luncheon 481 



INDEX. 583 

tSweet potatoes, to saute 209 

t tomato pickles 169 

tSweetbreads and mushrooms on toast 479 

tSweetbread, saiad 296 

tSweetbreads, to cook 186 

t " to prepare 211 

t to saute 211 

tSyrup, fruit 159 

*Table, laid for breakfast 450 

laid for dinner 457 

laid for luncheon 454 

linen 445-448 

tTaffy, brown sugar 470 

t white sugar 470 

tTamarind water 330 

Tapioca 313 

t cream 347 

meal 314 

t snow pudding 347 

Tarragon 1 75 

t dressing 292 

Tartrate baking powders 90 

Tea 253 

adulterations of 254 

t " beef 263 

t " cereal 334 

Teas, classes of 254 

tTea, cream of tartar 331 

t ' English breakfast 255 

pot and hot water pot of a century ago 254 

manufacture of 253 

Temperature for storage of eggs 223 

of fat for frying 203 

of oven for bread baking 103 

tTerrapin chicken 492 

Theine 246 

The dining room 443-448 

protein in cereals 71 

side board 453 

tThickening, for soups 262 

t of milk and flour 510 

Thin doughs 111-112 



584 INDEX. 

Things of importance in frying 204 

Thursday, work for 466 

Thyme 175 

tTimbales 492 

t " cheese (class rule) 240 

t cheese 240 

Tin utensils 20 

tTinted, popcorn balls 499 

f Toast, apple 488 

t " beef ' 335 

t cheese 242 

t " dry 489 

t " egg 488 

t " riced eggs on 488 

t " milk 335 

t " Tomato 489 

t " water 330 

tToasted cheese crackers 243 

tTo bake apples 149 



bake a fish with dressing 200 

blanch almonds 381 

broil a chicken 192 

broil a chop or steak. 190 

broil a leg of mutton 185 

broil a squab 193 

broil bacon " 194 

broil ham 186 

broil oysters 194 

broil wood cocks 193 

can corn 144 

can cherries 144 

can blueberries 143 

can peaches 144 

can peaches whole 144 

can pears whole 144 

can peas 145 

can pieplant 142 

can raspberries 143 

can soft berries 143 

can string beans 145 

can tomatoes 145 

can tomatoes whole 146 

carve a beefsteak 217 



INDEX. 585 

tTo carve a broiled chicken 218 

t " carve a chicken 219 

t " carve a duck 219 

t " carve a goose 219 

t " carve a joint of meat 217 

t " carve a loin of pork 218 

f " carve a loin of veal 218 

t " carve a saddle of lamb 218 

t " carve a saddle of mutton 218 

f " carve a sirloin roast 217 

t " carve a turkey 218 

t " carve a suckling pig 219 

t " carve a saddle of venison 218 

t " carve cuts from forequarters 218 

t " carve a squirrel 219 

" clarify butter 208 

" clarify fat 203 

" clarify mutton fat 479 

" clean currants 478 

" clean the dining room 464 

t " color soup stock 258 

t " cook a breast of lamb 185 

t " cook a lobster 479 

t " cook a pot roast of beef 189 

t " cook carrots plain 512 

f " cook celery plain 514 

f " cook corned beef 186 

f " cook dried apples 152 

t " cook dried fruit 151 

t " cook frozen meats 214 

t " cook onions plain 514 

t " cook peas dry 516 

t " cook salsify plain 515 

t " cook sweetbreads 186 

t " cook tomatoes plain 514 

t " cook tongue 188 

f " cook vegetable oysters plain 515 

t " cut melons in fancy shapes 378 

t " fillet a fish 207 

t " fillet a fowl 207 

t ". fry oysters 206 

t " fry fish 205 

t " fricasse a fowl 187 



586 INDEX. 

tTo glace fruit 44 1 

t " glace nuts 44 T 

t " make black tea 255 

t " make a butter cake 4 22 

" make clear jelly 154 

t '" make green tea 255 

t " make meringue for pie 361 

t " make soup stock 257 

t " make cocoa 253 

t " make dry yeast 5 01 

t " make fondant 4^9 

t " make lamb broth 264 

f " make mutton broth 264 

t " make thickening of flour and water 478 

t " make turkey broth 264 

t " marinate meats for salad 285 

t " mould ice cream 367 

t " open a lobster 479 

t " oven broil a chicken 193 

t " oven broil a fish 193 

t " poach eggs in milk 227 

t " prepare a calf's head 189 

t " prepare a sheep's head 189 

t " prepare and roast a chicken 201 

t " prepare and roast a turkey 201 

t " prepare and saute sweetbreads 211 

" prepare blackberries for the table 377 

" prepare canteloupes for the table 378 

" prepare grapes for the table 377 

" prepare lemons for the table 377 

" prepare oranges for the table 377 

" prepare pineapples for the table 377 

" prepare strawberries for the table 377 

" prepare watermelon for the table 377 

f " preserve cherries ID 4 

t " preserve peaches 164 

t " preserve pears ^4 

t " preserve strawberries : 64 

t " preserve sweet apples 164 

t " procure onion juice 478 

" remove fat from soup stock 246 

t " remove onion odor from hands 5 01 

f " remove stains from egg shells 5 01 



INDEX. 587 

tTo roast a leg of mutton 199 

t " roast a piece of beef l 9^ 

t " roast chestnuts 381 

t " roast pork IQ 8 

t " roast spare ribs of pork 198 

t " roast veal x 99 

t " ' saute bananas 2I 5 

t " saute bread 2I l 

t " saute cabbage 208 

t " saute chicken 2I1 

t " saute cold meat schapple 213 

t " saute cold mush 2I1 

t " saute eggs 2I 3 

t " saute fish 2I2 

t " fish cakes 2I2 

t " saute fruits 2I 5 

t " saute ham 2I2 

t " saute hash balls 2I2 

t " saute liver 2I 3 

t " saute liver balls 2I 3 

t " saute meat croquettes 486 

t " saute mutton chops 2I 4 

t " saute onions 2I0 

t " saute parsnips 20 9 

t " saute potato balls 2 °9 

t " saute pork chops 2I 3 

t " saute rabbit 2I l 

t " saute salsify 2 °8 

t " saute summer squash -209 

t " saute sweet potatoes 2 o8 

t " saute veal chops 2I 3 

" serve a dinner 457"4oi 

" select beef 3°3 

"■ select berries and fruit .... 3°° 

" select butter 306 

" select cereals 3°7 

" select dried fruit 308 

" select dry beans 3°7 

" select eggs 306 

" select fish 3°6 

" select ham 305 

' select lamb 3°5 

" select macaroni 3°7 



588 INDEX. 

To select mutton 305 

select pork 305 

select poultry 305 

select veal 304 

select vegetables ,. . . 307 

serve nuts 380 

t " steam pieplant 153 

t " stew a fowl '. 186 

t " stew apples 149 

t " stew apricots and prunes 152 

t " stew cranberries % 150 

t " stew cranberries (class rule) 150 

t " stew gooseberries No. 1 151 

t " stew gooseberries No. 2 151 

t " stew pieplant 151 

t " stew plums and prunes 152 

t " stone raisins 478 

tToffee 471 

tTomato, butter 161 

t " butter (class rule) 161 

t " celery and nut salad 289 

tTomatoes, cream of 280 

f " cream of (class rule) . . : 280 

t " cups, beef hash in 487 

t " dressing 287 

t " omelet 231 

t " pickles, sweet 169 

t " pickles, green 168 

t " preserves 165 

t " salad 198 

t " salad, winter 288 

t " salad 287 

t " salad in tomato cups 288 

t " sauce — meat pie 483 

t " sauce 495 

t " toast 489 

t " with beef broth (class rule) 264 

t " with beef broth (home rule) 264 

tTomatoes, escalloped 58 

t " puree of 274 

t " sauted 58 

t " stuffed 58 



INDEX. 589 

tTomatoes, spiced *69 

t " to can whole J 45 

t " to cook 56 

t " to cook plain 5*4 

tTongue boiled — tomato sauce 480 

t " to cook J 88 

tTurkey and oyster hash 488 

f " broth, to make 264 

f " to carve 21S 

t " to prepare and roast 201 

tTurkish pilaf 493 

*Turning out an omelet 230 

tTurnips, creamed without butter 5*6 

t " to cook 56 

tTurbot, fish 200 

tTutti frutti candy 476 

t " " ice cream 37° 

Tuesday, work for 463 

f Uncooked candies 477 

t " chocolate creams 477 

tUnscalded corn meal bread 5°8 

Uses and abuses of meat 394 

" of cuts of beef J 78 

" of food 409 

" of cuts of mutton 181 

" of cuts of pork 181 

" of cuts of veal J 8 

Use of glucose as an adulteration 412 

" of fish 395 

" of salt J 47 

*Utensils and materials for making salads 281 

* " for making cake 421 

kitchen x 9 

Values of food 392 

Value of meat for food l 7$> 

Veal, breast of l8 o 

t " chops, to saute 213 

" chump end of loin of 181 

" fillet of 181 

" flank of 180 

t " in mushroom sauce 49° 



590 INDEX. 

Veal loin, best end of i8 

" names of cuts of 180 

neck of 181 

t " pot pie 187 

t " pot pie, plain 511 

scrag end of neck of s 180 

shank of 180 

* " side of 180 

t to carve a loin of 218 

t " to roast 199 

to select 304 

uses of cuts 180 

tVegetable oysters or salsify, to cook 59 

t oysters, to cook plain 515 

t soup 268 

Vegetables 43 

place of in the diet 43 

rule for canning 142 

to select 307 

used for flavoring stocks 260 

Velvet molasses candy 470 

t Venison, to carve a saddle of 218 

Vinegar, cider 167 

t for watermelon rind pickles — to prepare 168 

fruit 167 

t home made 156 

malt 167 

t " sauce 355 

t " whey 333 

white wine 167 

Virgin barm 88 

Viscous fermentation 84 

tVitos, to cook 74 

tWaffles 113 

*Waffle iron 114 

t Walnut creams 472 

Washing dishes and utensils 30, 31 

Waste of food 391 

in trimming meats 195 

Water 36-42 

t " apple 330 

t apricot 330 



INDEX. 591 

Water, boiling of 40 

" composition of 37> 3& 

t " cranberry 33* 

t " flaxseed 330 

t " flaxseed (borne rule).. .• 330 

food value of 38-40 

" for cooking purposes 40 

t " ices 371 

" of wells 40-42 

t " or fruit juice frosting 440 

" permanent hard 40 

purity of 39 

" river 41 

" sources of 36, 37 

" sources of impurities in 40 

" spring 40 

t sponge cake 425 

t tamarind 330 

temporary hard 39 

t " toast 335 

Water cress 44 

t " " sandwich 137 

t " salad 293 

tWatermelon, frozen 380 

t rind pickles 168 

t rind preserves 166 

to prepare for table 377 

*Ways in which melons may be cut 378 

Wednesday, work for 463 

Weights and measures 27 

Weight of eggs 224 

Wells, water of 41, 42 

tWelsh rarebit 241 

West India coffee 245 

What to serve in soups 260 

Wheat 76 

and graham muffins, sour milk 1 16 

and graham muffins, sour milk (class rule) 116 

" and wheat flour 76 

as food 79 

" cereals, food value of 82 

t cracked, to cook 74 

" dextrine of 80 



592 INDEX. 

Wheat, fat of 79 

flour, adulterations in 83 

germ as breakfast food 82 

gluten of , 80 

grain, physical structure of 77 

t griddle cakes 114 

mineral matter of 80 

t " muffins with baking powder 117 

" starch of 80 

Whey 236 

t " junket 518 

t lemon 333 

t " vinegar 333 

f White beans in cream 61 

t " cake 428 

t " cake, plain 504 

t " of egg icing 441 

t " meal corn gems 133 

t " sauce No. 1 53 

t " sauce, without butter 512 

t " sauce, without butter, for cabbage 513 

" wine vinegar 167 

tWhole wheat bread 109 

t " wheat or graham griddle cakes 115 

t " wheat muffins raised with egg 118 

t " wheat muffins, sour milk 116 

t " wheat or graham muffins, baking powder. 116 

tWild birds 334 

tWintergreen creams 476 

Winter lettuce or endive 44 

tomato salad 288 

Wood 6 

t Woodcocks, to broil 193 

Work, for Friday 467 

" for Monday 462 

" for Saturday 468 

" for Thursday 466 

" for Tuesday 463 

" for Wednesday , 463 

tW. C. T. U. punch 374 

Yeasts 84 

Yeast, action of in dough 95 



INDEX. 593 

Yeast, brewers' gg g^ 

compressed gg j gg 

dr >' ' gg 

dry, to make e 0I 

home made I0 g 

made with hops gg 

potato I0 g 

strength of gg 

t Yellow cake e 04 

tYolk cake with water Ar> -> 

T custard - 4 - 

t " custard (class rule) 345 

tYorkshire pudding IQ - 

Young Americans — cheese 2 ^g 



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